撰文 （葡萄牙）路易斯 · 勞瑞斯 翻譯 陳美蘭 狄帆 校對 楊云峰

1 簡介——后工業(yè)景觀現(xiàn)狀

風景園林設計關注的重點從單一孤立的對象設計轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)楦蠓秶某鞘行蜗笤O計，從而增加了所設想的干預措施的影響，強調(diào)創(chuàng)建風景園林理論本體的重要性，提供一個可從中獲得行動對策的結(jié)構(gòu)。在此框架下，理論思考和討論已被確定為振興風景園林和城市設計的跨文化交流的一個重要問題。此外，事實上，風景園林是不斷變化的（Jinyan,Xiangzheng and Tianxiang，2003；Pinto-Correia,D' Abreu and Oliveira, 2001)，是復雜的相互作用的自然過程的結(jié)果，并且計劃內(nèi)或計劃外的人為活動加劇了這種情況。然而，這種持續(xù)的景觀改造——考慮的不僅僅是后工業(yè)項目——已經(jīng)引起全球的關注（Czerniak, 2006;Musacchio, et al., 2005;and Spirn, 1998），因為有必要重新考慮景觀和環(huán)境保護。這尤其適用于那些以前開發(fā)的而現(xiàn)在處于廢棄或未充分利用的場地。事實上，政府和民眾必須意識到：重建“棕地”的需求迫切而緊要，賦予它們新的生機，營造一個更加可持續(xù)的城市環(huán)境，而不是單純地去消費綠地。（De Sousa, 2003; Panagopoulos and Loures, 2007; and Portney, 2003）。

這些土地改造方法的實用性和普及性受到越來越多的認可，正如里德（Reed ,2005）提到的“近年來幾乎每一個重要的新的園林設計基于一塊廢棄或退化的土地，并在其上進行徹底改造或再生利用，如同后工業(yè)時代的城市改造和重新界定其戶外空間”。因此，一些問題出現(xiàn)了，譬如：應該如何處理這些景觀？這些區(qū)域未來可能有什么作用？是什么使得這些空間未能充分利用？什么阻礙了這些景觀改造？誰來負責改造？誰最有資格去做？這是一個專業(yè)的努力過程。

圖01 美國芝加哥千禧公園——從西爾斯大廈鳥瞰。Fig.01 Millennium Park, Chicago-USA- view from Sears Tower.Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

圖02 加拿大多倫多磚廠，環(huán)境改造和工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)保護齊頭并進。Fig.02 Brick Works, Toronto-Canada. Environmental restoration and industrial heritage protection were considered at the same level.Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

為此，需要新的方法和框架。在“看似老氣橫秋的景觀已經(jīng)好奇地回到時尚”（Corner, 2006）的時期，迫切需要重塑后工業(yè)景觀改造的方式，這不僅是考慮到環(huán)境問題，而且是歷史和文化價值，是經(jīng)濟機會和社會需要。這個受到日益關注的起源可以追溯到工業(yè)成為城市轉(zhuǎn)型主角之一的那個時期（Rossi, 1982）。

工業(yè)全球化對世界各地工業(yè)地區(qū)產(chǎn)生了深遠的影響，出現(xiàn)了一些廢棄的或是未充分利用的后工業(yè)景觀（Antrop, 2000a），降低了發(fā)展?jié)摿蜕钯|(zhì)量（Handley, 1996）。在這種情況下，加上城市發(fā)展以及隨著人口集中在城市地區(qū)（Antrop, 2000b），風景園林師和其它規(guī)劃專家面臨著巨大的挑戰(zhàn)：如何對那些面臨著新興管理模式的后工業(yè)景觀的未來進行規(guī)劃？——社區(qū)、城市和地區(qū)必須適應經(jīng)濟發(fā)展和人口增長，同時保持和加強社區(qū)精神、場所意識和物理環(huán)境——問題的答案遠非那么簡單，但是后工業(yè)場地的再利用而不是開辟新的場地來發(fā)展多功能景觀， 這本身就成為實現(xiàn)目標的一種可能性（Loures and Panagopoulos, 2007）。

圖03 德國北杜伊斯堡公園。Fig.03 Duisburg-Nord Park, Germany. Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

圖04 荷蘭阿姆斯特丹西煤氣廠公園。Fig.04 Westergasfabriek, Amsterdam-The Netherlands. Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

工業(yè)污染造成這些城市區(qū)域經(jīng)濟衰退、環(huán)境退化和社會困境，這一事實清晰表明，項目改造必須能夠重新定義這些景觀，以社區(qū)為基礎，跨學科行動，在社會、經(jīng)濟和生態(tài)目標的基礎上集成多功能、長期的解決方案，正如世界上多個國家所發(fā)生的那樣（圖01-04）。

2 方法/預想的設計框架

眾所皆知，城市規(guī)劃和開放空間保護是同一過程的不同部分，保護開放空間最有效的方式是有效地控制和管理城市的發(fā)展（Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson, 2004）。就這方面而言，土地改造政策、策略和方法被認為是控制城市容量、促進城市改建和復興的重要工具（Adams and Watkins, 2002; Urban Land Institute, 2004; Willem, 2009）。

然而，他們整合的這些貢獻和原則并不能充分地評價后工業(yè)土地改造成效。但是，隨著城市擴張日益凸顯的土地問題涵蓋了廣泛的社會、經(jīng)濟和環(huán)境層面，這個方法可能會被認為是解決城市擴張的一個有效方法（Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson, 2004; Brueckner,2000; and Johnson, 2001）。

縱觀過去十多年中，眾多研究員和學者都置身于創(chuàng)造更好的景觀改造理論中，這些通常由設計師的主觀意志所決定，而這又是其中的缺陷所在。由此，新的框架和方法是必需的。

然而，這些方法在研究中需要應用到多種方式，包括定量和定性的策略，其中最好的不是線性方法，而是根據(jù)需要多次進行問題、原則和信息的循環(huán)論證。

就這方面而言，經(jīng)驗學習被認為是重建城市的一個有效工具。本文提出的方法（圖05）主要分為兩部分：案例研究（開發(fā)項目——學習經(jīng)驗）和實例研究（場地具體性質(zhì)和獨特性）。

由此，可感知的案例研究和后工業(yè)景觀改造最佳實踐案例的分析構(gòu)成了該框架的基礎。

對于這種類型的分析，尹（1994年）在其著作《案例研究——設計與方法》（Case Study Research: Design and Methods）中提出了5種研究策略（雖然存在其它幾種策略）：實驗、調(diào)查、檔案分析、歷史和案例研究。

然而，案例研究法則被一些學者認為是非常重要的研究策略（Yin, 1994; Agranoff and Beryl, 1991; George, 1979; and Lucas, 1974），不僅可以在類似案例研究中進行分析和比較，而且發(fā)展了系統(tǒng)的分析，大大降低了分析者的主觀成分。

這些本質(zhì)特征使得該方法適用于各個知識領域中，如醫(yī)學研究、社會學、工程、規(guī)劃、建筑和風景園林中。再者，據(jù)弗朗西斯（Francis ，1999 & 2001年）所言，這個方法是研究和分析現(xiàn)有項目非常有用的工具，是解決特定問題和設計限制，以及應遵循或避免何種策略的方式。

圖05 案例研究方法示意圖Fig.05 Proposed methodological scheme.

應用該方法能夠創(chuàng)建一套后工業(yè)景觀改造規(guī)劃設計原則，可以將特定理論基礎的創(chuàng)建廣而告之，以提高類似重建計劃的質(zhì)量。即通過成功的后工業(yè)改造項目中所應用的實際原則進行研究分析，以此創(chuàng)建一套原則將所創(chuàng)建的具體設計理論進行推廣應用。

3 從理論到實踐——簡要概述

就前面所述的方法而言，研究區(qū)域的選擇構(gòu)成了本研究的重要組成部分，代表了目前研究成果中很重要的一個方面。從這點上來看，“最佳實踐”的案例選擇（與實踐案例的研究區(qū)域的定義一樣）應當考慮一套預先確定的限制因素。關于選擇“最佳實踐”的案例，這一過程限定于：在設定項目進度和經(jīng)濟條件下，盡可能多地收集和分析后工業(yè)用地的改造項目。從這個意義上說，在整個調(diào)查過程中，應將盡可能多的工業(yè)用地轉(zhuǎn)型案例研究加以確認。項目確定后，有必要先處理數(shù)據(jù)的可用性，然后對獲取、收集并使用這些數(shù)據(jù)的可能性進行核實?？紤]到實踐研究領域的特點，如果認為這些必要的信息和案例與該研究有關，那么應將該項目納入其中。

如果所處理的案例研究的數(shù)量和規(guī)模巨大，為了便于審查管理，其分析應該在幾個方面受到限制。首先，研究不應該僅把焦點放在那些與實際研究區(qū)域有著高度相似性的后工業(yè)土地的改造項目，也要考慮預先設計的目標/對象，以及針對實際研究區(qū)域所設定的分析。其次，選定的項目應遵守一套原則，包括：(1)可轉(zhuǎn)換性或與研究區(qū)域（后工業(yè)土地轉(zhuǎn)換）有關聯(lián)性，不僅要考慮重建過程中設計策略的具體原則和框架，還要考慮項目的規(guī)模、社會多樣性、文化意義以及影響力；(2)委托至少一個相關的專家直接參與項目（即設計師或項目協(xié)調(diào)員），這樣，通過案例研究過程中的描述和分析所推測出的觀點和結(jié)論，無論是所采用的設計策略還是所提出的解決方案、建設方案、項目計劃，尤其是規(guī)劃設計原則，都可能由一個熟知該項目的專家加以批準確認；(3) 項目實施——項目應實施或部分實施（國際競賽中產(chǎn)生的多次設計方案都是趨向于圖像學研究，有時甚至是不可持續(xù)難以實現(xiàn)的）；(4) 實地考察——案例研究分析的負責人應該盡可能多地，至少不低于一次地進行現(xiàn)場考察，通過對使用者的正式訪問來分析人們對空間功能的使用方式。

即使在任何過程中都存在難以確定相對重要性的價值判斷，這個方法中涉及的這些原則，對所做的評估具有一定程度的客觀性和透明性，由此得以選擇更能反應研究目標的案例。

然而，鑒于提出的方法論體系包括多個案例的研究分析，因此必須對所有研究制定一個計劃。從這個意義上看，一個典型的計劃應根據(jù)同一作者結(jié)合下列部分：案例研究項目的概述，場地程序，案例研究的問題和案例研究報告指南。而每個案例研究的后續(xù)方面應進行調(diào)查分析以下內(nèi)容：項目位置，設計團隊，項目類型及其用途，項目規(guī)模，項目背景或歷史的簡介，項目的意義及其獨特性，目標，規(guī)劃設計策略，經(jīng)驗教訓以及項目局限性。

在所選取的案例研究進行分析之后，將按照上述計劃對重建計劃中的規(guī)劃設計原則作一個探試性定義，其方法則類似于喬恩·朗（Jon Lang）在1994年提出的城市規(guī)劃標準理論。各項規(guī)劃設計原則經(jīng)鑒定后將根據(jù)文獻表達的思想和定義進行描述。只要有可能，這個定義應隨時與制定該原則的項目設計團隊進行校準，就各原則的定義和目標方面獲得更多精確的客觀的信息。

此外，事實上，規(guī)劃設計領域的理論發(fā)展通常需要由經(jīng)驗豐富的從業(yè)者（他們通常是供職于規(guī)劃設計事務所，這些事務所由于太忙而無法發(fā)表或分享他們的知識）對實際項目進行評估，即描述改造項目中有效的規(guī)劃設計原則，闡釋高效的景觀配置中有用的規(guī)范理論，并說明成功的改造項目中寶貴的規(guī)劃設計流程（Burley, 2001）。這樣的評估降低了理論的發(fā)展與傳播能力。再者，即使文獻中能夠找到大量的案例研究和最佳的實踐案例，往往是難以處理的或未能將問題集中在那些可能影響或預示理論發(fā)展的層面上。從這點上看，后工業(yè)用地轉(zhuǎn)型的案例研究是分析其重建的設計原則和策略，針對新的規(guī)劃設計規(guī)范理論的定義制定一個相關的框架，使之得以在一定程度上降低城市規(guī)劃設計領域理論與實踐發(fā)展中目前存在的差異性。

由此，在調(diào)研期間，根據(jù)弗朗西斯（Francis, 1999）提出的方法識別、處理和分析數(shù)個案例研究，以確定一套能夠展現(xiàn)后工業(yè)土地轉(zhuǎn)型具體理論的規(guī)劃設計原則。該方法能夠鑒定后工業(yè)景觀改造規(guī)劃設計原則，展現(xiàn)具體規(guī)范理論以作為類似重建計劃的基礎。

4 案例研究分析

案例研究被認為是介紹和分析特定項目的一個非常重要的策略和熟練的工具（Wang and Burley, 2008; Francis, 1999; Agranoff and Beryl 1991; George, 1979），包括詳實的系統(tǒng)的審查過程，以及為展現(xiàn)項目未來的實踐、政策、理論和教育而做的決策和成果（Francis, 1999），并且能將類似的案例進行分析和比較。

該方法已經(jīng)成功應用于各個知識領域中，如醫(yī)學、社會學、土木工程、規(guī)劃、建筑和風景園林中。而且，它是一個非常有用的工具，用作某一設計問題的解決方式，應當遵循或避免的設計策略（Francis, 2001 and 1999）。案例研究是實用信息的來源，學習實例的有效方式，解決問題的技能以及有用的評價策略。

此外，這些方法對于解釋甚至預測與實踐相關的理論也非常有用。在這種情況下，多案例研究著眼于那些有助于了解的概括性的經(jīng)驗或原則（Francis, 1999）。多案例研究的證據(jù)被普遍認為是強有力的，其原因的研究則被認為更加強大（Yin, 1994）。然而，多案例研究分析需要大量的資源和時間。

事實上，該方法運用多種研究方法（實驗、半實驗、歷史、故事/文檔，以及綜合方法）、數(shù)據(jù)和證據(jù)的來源，構(gòu)成研究過程的強項之一（Lube, 2003; Francis, 1999），使研究人員有機會反復推敲數(shù)據(jù)以加強研究成果和結(jié)論，建立理論，產(chǎn)生新理論，爭論或挑戰(zhàn)理論，解釋情況或現(xiàn)象等等（Soy, 1997），以此增強研究的有效性和可信度。

此外，正如穆東（2007, p.364）所言：“雖然研究往往與獨立的信息及特定的現(xiàn)象相關，但可以預期的是城市設計研究將產(chǎn)生規(guī)范性層面的信息并最終幫助設計”，為今后的設計提出建議。

綜上所述，沒有比各自實踐更重要的理論（Demo, 1996），案例研究被認為是很有幫助的，假設如前面提過的并不總是用于客觀實際中，這種研究方法對于新理論的發(fā)展仍具有重要作用。

4.1 案例研究的確定

考慮到缺乏后工業(yè)重建的共同理論，以及客觀地收集、分析和組織盡可能多的后工業(yè)土地改造項目信息，介于目前研究的局限性，通過多種研究技術(shù)挑選出位于世界各地的346個后工業(yè)土地改造項目（圖06）。

4.2 案例研究的分析

確定346個土地改造項目后，首先必須明確項目數(shù)據(jù)的可用性，其次是驗證數(shù)據(jù)查閱、收集和使用的可能性。如果必要的信息可用，且案例與目前的研究相關，那么就對這個項目進行處理：描述其使用方法，應用的設計策略，重建過程中的經(jīng)驗教訓，以及設計師改造后工業(yè)遺跡的方式，解決問題并展望重建的成效（圖07）。

根據(jù)這些程序選擇出世界各地共139個后工業(yè)土地改造案例研究。為了理解和評估后工業(yè)景觀改造和城市設計之間錯綜復雜的關系，考慮在有效的理論分析體系中建立一個詳細分析的子集，其代表了工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)保護的成功案例，公眾參與，作為城市再生催化劑的多功能改造，以及對文化藝術(shù)活動和設施建設有極大促進作用的經(jīng)濟發(fā)展。

以下選擇6個案例研究進行分析。根據(jù)地理位置將這些案例研究分為兩組：一組位于歐洲，另一組位于北美。這個分組是在調(diào)查期間，經(jīng)過案例研究選擇審核的結(jié)果，除了考慮項目信息的質(zhì)量，還考慮了信息的可用性和可達性。也就是說，它并不意味著一組中不能選擇其他項目，而是所選擇的這些項目更適合①。

4.2.1 歐洲案例

歐洲范圍內(nèi)選定的項目有：葡萄牙特茹河和特蘭考河公園。

葡萄牙特茹河和特蘭考河公園

設計團隊：PROAP事務所，哈格里夫斯事務所（顧問）

類型/用途：城市公園

規(guī)模：90hm2

預算：約1 850萬歐元

項目簡介：坐落在里斯本東部地區(qū)，特茹河和特蘭考河的交匯處，公園由此得名。該區(qū)域土地廢棄、環(huán)境退化，是葡萄牙后工業(yè)景觀改造項目中最典型的案例。成為公園之前，場地作為多種工業(yè)用途就像一個垃圾填埋場、廢料場、污水處理廠和許多廢棄的工業(yè)建筑物（Craveiro, 2003; and Spagna,2002）。所有這些工業(yè)設施均加重了景觀污染程度，是里斯本污染最嚴重的區(qū)域之一（Castel-Branco, 1998）。這種高污染和明顯退化的情況，加上臨近的塔霍河口自然保護區(qū)，以及開展第98屆世界博覽會的意圖，構(gòu)成了對這個特定區(qū)域進行干預的決定性理由。

公園約90hm2，無論是在場地上還是主題上都和世界博覽園有聯(lián)系。世界博覽園占地340hm2，是自成一體的城市中心，有住宅、商店、交通基礎設施、停車場和公園，能夠重新建立城市與河流之間的聯(lián)系，同時有助于界定城市的整體性（Comeau, 2009）。該計劃呼吁創(chuàng)造一個有吸引力的公共綠地，配以新的休閑文化，為城市房地產(chǎn)開發(fā)創(chuàng)造需求（Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.46）。從這個意義上而言，針對受破壞環(huán)境的修復所提出的設計將把場地變?yōu)榇罄锼贡镜貐^(qū)內(nèi)一個新的景點（Comeau, 2009）。

隨著世博會博覽園的興建而確定城市發(fā)展項目中的主要目標——例如環(huán)境改造和城市復興——這些項目旨在建立一個新的城市中心，擁有教育、文化和休閑活動，每年能夠吸引成千上萬人，提供就業(yè)崗位，創(chuàng)造財富，改善生活質(zhì)量（Craveiro, 2003）。從這一點上，引入市民需求是項目的重要任務。通過廣泛研究確定該區(qū)域內(nèi)潛在的商業(yè)者和居住者，從而提出區(qū)域發(fā)展策略（Comeau,2009）。

圖06 案例研究的地理分布——相似位置的案例研究只表示為單一紅點。Fig.06-Geographic distribution of the identified case studies-Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved. Note that case studies with similar location were represented by a single red dot.

圖07 案例研究在各大洲的地理分布Fig.07 Geographic distribution by continent of the addressed case studies.

公園的設計策略考慮發(fā)展多功能項目，在一定程度上是環(huán)境教育的傳統(tǒng)與娛樂設施綜合作用的結(jié)果（Lambertini, 2006）。實際上，該設計（圖08）將之前的廢棄場地變?yōu)橐粋€多功能景觀點，集休閑、娛樂和環(huán)境教育為一體。

本項目突出一個事實，即通過促進改變土地利用模式和土地價值，開發(fā)區(qū)域土地專業(yè)化和新的基礎設施，可以將廢棄的景觀（如特茹河和特蘭考河公園）變?yōu)樵絹碓接形Φ膱龅兀˙lokhuis and Schaefer, 2007）。事實上，公園的本質(zhì)是將城市中污染最嚴重、最令人厭惡的的區(qū)域變?yōu)樽罹呶Φ膮^(qū)域之一。正如安德烈森（Andresen, 1998a,p.8）所述“……一個混亂的地方，一個可怕的地方”，當與之前的場地特性進行對比分析時，方能凸顯場地的實質(zhì)性轉(zhuǎn)變。

然而，即使特茹河和特蘭考河公園項目被認為是一個“……葡萄牙的試點項目，在全體居民的見證下從垃圾場和城市廢棄地搖身一變成為綠色生活區(qū)”（Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.55），該項目從一開始就存在著諸多限制。

4.2.2 北美案例

北美范圍內(nèi)選定的項目有：美國凱霍加河流域蜿蜒的纖道小徑和加拿大多倫多頓河河谷磚瓦廠。

4.2.2.1 美國俄亥俄州克利夫蘭，凱霍加河流域蜿蜒的纖道小徑——一個多功能遺產(chǎn)連接器

設計團隊/規(guī)劃委員會：委員：蒂姆·麥考馬克，吉米·迪莫拉和彼得·瓊斯，規(guī)劃設計總監(jiān)：克里斯·羅奈因。

類型/用途：多功能/文化小徑

規(guī)模：長度9.7km；小徑廊道面積16.2hm2；廊道連接的潛在公園面積81 hm2。

預算：4 781萬美元，約3 915萬歐元。

項目簡介：該項目除了用于交通和娛樂的目的外，最重要的是廣泛的環(huán)境再生策略不僅適用于小徑本身同時也適用于周邊景觀（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）。鑒于長期以來城市發(fā)展對策主要是實現(xiàn)更好的城市形態(tài)以制造生產(chǎn)和便于貨物運輸?shù)乃贰㈣F路和公路，因此這個項目的意義在于一定程度上創(chuàng)造重新關注自然河谷的機會（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）。此外，北凱霍加河谷有著豐富的文化和歷史資源，代表著過去的時代和現(xiàn)在的社區(qū)，為探索研究這些資源提供機會（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1999），為如何進行區(qū)域重建以及工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)如何成為城市復興的媒介樹立一個典范。

圖08 特茹河和特蘭考河公園總平面圖，作者根據(jù)谷歌地圖（2010年）和PROAP（2008年）繪制而成。Fig.08 Parque do Tejo e do Tranc?o, programmaticareas.Developed by Author.Used sources: Google Maps (2010); and PROAP (2008) – Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

該方案獨樹一幟，就土地改造、工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)和環(huán)境質(zhì)量作出精確的概念，并挖掘出河谷最佳的自然特性，也就是說，河流邊緣及其長條形景色有益于從山坡俯瞰山谷和中心城區(qū)天際線（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）?？紤]到公眾參與和場地多功能性，該項目的開發(fā)是凸顯凱霍加河谷潛力的契機，使之具有良好環(huán)境和審美價值，與整體區(qū)域相統(tǒng)一，解決工業(yè)衰退和人口減少等內(nèi)在問題。

所應用的設計策略是基于克利夫蘭歷史變革的創(chuàng)新精神，從運輸與工業(yè)的黃金時期到持續(xù)的公私伙伴關系時期，后工業(yè)濱水區(qū)的復興一直延伸至市中心和多個傳統(tǒng)街區(qū)（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）。

此外，通過整合城市綜合的、可持續(xù)的發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略，所選的方法讓城市得以解決社會文化及經(jīng)濟問題，創(chuàng)造價值，提升公民生活質(zhì)量（Cleveland Land Lab, 2008）。

包括步道及其涵蓋的區(qū)域內(nèi)的現(xiàn)有資產(chǎn)和條件，該項目根據(jù)不同層面的可行性和影響力開發(fā)了多條可選擇的路線（Baker, 2009;and Kinsley et al. 2006），并考慮該決議的責任和污染問題以符合美國環(huán)保署關于康樂用途的清理標準。

除了公認的環(huán)境和美觀效果，劃定的走廊也有意發(fā)展地區(qū)社會經(jīng)濟和文化，因此其設計創(chuàng)造大量的娛樂、文化和經(jīng)濟機會，如圖09（可以步行，騎自行車，慢跑，徒步遠足），這將有助于創(chuàng)造就業(yè)機會，促進旅游發(fā)展，同時城市中野生生物廊道的發(fā)展將提升生物多樣性（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1992）。

該項目表明，人們現(xiàn)在比以往任何時候都更加意識到一個地方是建立在它過去的基礎上，其歷史輪廓則印刻在人們的生活中。由此，新的方法應該為后工業(yè)景觀提供開辟更多文化用途的機會。

以現(xiàn)有工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)為特征的凱霍加河流域纖道小徑的開發(fā)使得克利夫蘭大都市當局與私營開發(fā)商、當?shù)卣蜕鐓^(qū)組織進行合作，將幾塊空置、廢棄的場地變廢為寶。事實上，隨著其它一些后工業(yè)土地改造項目的開發(fā)，社區(qū)參與增加人們的自豪感與歸屬感，使得項目更易被接受。然而，這個項目的主要限制在一定程度上也與社區(qū)參與有關。因為信息主要來源于公眾聽證會和其它會議，實地調(diào)查期間獲得的信息說明僅僅是一些當?shù)鼐用袼枋龅模惶‘?。而且步道未能妥當有效地將一些重要的地標展現(xiàn)出來?？偟膩砜?，這個項目強調(diào)：即使廢棄的工業(yè)景觀常常被視為荒廢和衰退的象征，在特定情況下，它們可能是城市新生的催化劑，小規(guī)模的項目往往具有巨大的影響力，不僅僅是提高景觀美學，當?shù)厣鷳B(tài)環(huán)境和土地價值等方面。

圖09 凱霍加河流域復興區(qū)域，作者根據(jù)2010年城市規(guī)劃委員會(City Planning Commission, 2010;)和2002年凱霍加縣規(guī)劃委員會（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002）的相關資料繪制而成。Fig.09 Cuyahoga river valley redevelopment areas. Developed by Author. Used sources: City Planning Commission, 2010; and Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002.

4 .2.2.2 加拿大多倫多頓河河谷磚瓦廠

設計團隊：邁克爾·霍克，霍克斯坦布里林地有限公司

類型/用途：生態(tài)公園

規(guī)模：16.5hm2

預算：350萬美元，約280萬歐元

圖10 頓河河谷磚瓦廠改造項目，作者根據(jù)谷歌地圖（2010年）和消失的河流小徑（2008年）繪制而成。Fig.10 Don Valley Brick Works Program- Developed by Author.Used sources: Google maps (2010); and Lost River Walks (2008)

項目背景簡介：通過展示生態(tài)修復、水質(zhì)改善、生物棲息地、休閑和娛樂機會等多種功能同時使用，此重建項目表明：如果設計得當，休閑區(qū)域兼具暴雨水管理、棲息地恢復和水質(zhì)改善的用途。從這方面而言，頓河河谷磚瓦廠改造項目有助于改變?nèi)藗儗Τ鞘虚_放空間的看法和期望，改變對公園的固有看法，從單一的草坪、灌木和樹木轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)楦鞣N野生動植物棲息地與休閑娛樂機會相融合的景觀。

此外，頓河河谷已經(jīng)失去了絕大部分的沼澤地，這是19世紀強烈的工業(yè)化進程以及隨后20世紀日漸城市化進程造成的結(jié)果，使得頓河的多條支流渠化槽化（City of Toronto,200）。這個事實強調(diào)了生態(tài)恢復和環(huán)境教育的重要意義。鑒于不可避免地依賴于人類活動和自然過程，此設計提出構(gòu)建一個“適當?shù)姆绞絹砝斫膺z產(chǎn)作為連續(xù)動態(tài)的更新過程”（Hough, 2004, p.52）。

再者，以生態(tài)為基礎的工業(yè)景觀改造表明，通過自然過程而不是試圖控制它們來進行重建，往往會獲得更大的驚喜。此設計的獨特之處很快得到認可，這從它多次獲得獎項可以證明（Foster, 2005）。

該設計方案的核心目標是修復頓河流域，同時促進遺產(chǎn)與環(huán)境恢復的聯(lián)系條件并加強修復過程，曾經(jīng)造成河谷退化的工業(yè)現(xiàn)在已然成為生態(tài)修復的一部分內(nèi)容。將原工業(yè)建筑納入設計策略中盡管很有限，但它們卻是一個關鍵因素，因為歷史是一個學習過去以滿足當前需要的動態(tài)變化和適應過程（Hough, 2004）。正如福斯特（Foster, 2005）指出，即使城市不愿意強調(diào)現(xiàn)有的工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)，但富有遠見卓識的風景園林師將它看作一項重要的資產(chǎn)，連接場地與城市，代表了工業(yè)變革和技術(shù)改造。

雖然傳統(tǒng)上對于棕色地帶的場地修復主要關注其經(jīng)濟層面，但頓河河谷磚瓦廠改造項目則很好平衡了經(jīng)濟效益與生態(tài)效益之間的關系，同時為多倫多居民提供額外的綠色空間（Foster, 2005）。

隨著20世紀90年代中期由區(qū)域環(huán)境保護局開展的修復頓河河谷磚瓦廠及其采石場工程，邁克爾·霍克提出了基于生態(tài)的設計理念，將對多倫多自然和文化歷史具有重大意義的工業(yè)遺產(chǎn)（Hough, 2004），變?yōu)楦挥形蛣?chuàng)意的生態(tài)設計，以現(xiàn)存的文化和自然遺產(chǎn)及其與周圍城市環(huán)境的關系為基礎，為生態(tài)設計和可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略提供很好的案例（Lister, 2007）。

而且，正如福斯特（Foster, 2005, p.333）所言“……場地在很多方面具有良好的設計特點，該設計提出生態(tài)修復和環(huán)境美學的綜合理論，結(jié)合了風景園林和景觀生態(tài)學領域的思想家和實踐者所倡導的原則”。與上述針對彼得·拉茨設計的北杜伊斯堡公園的案例分析不同，“河谷磚瓦廠使公園的概念超越了自然保護的角度， 變成一個學習景觀的領域以及講授可持續(xù)性的榜樣”（Lister, 2007,p.52）。就這點而言，設計策略以遺產(chǎn)和環(huán)境恢復二者結(jié)合為核心目標，基于相關的主題：“采石場北坡的具有國際性重大意義的地質(zhì)構(gòu)造揭示了該區(qū)域在地質(zhì)時期的氣候變化以及曾經(jīng)生活于此的動物；濕地花園為昆蟲、魚類和鳥類提供棲息地，恢復曾經(jīng)干涸、流入頓河的小溪的水質(zhì)，從而促進頓河流域的更新”（Hough, 2004, p.52）。

此項目開發(fā)被視為一個持續(xù)不斷地更新和治療的過程，是對條件變化的一種應對和適應。該項目（圖10）考慮到幾個關鍵原則，不僅基于生物、社會、經(jīng)濟和政治問題，而且基于對城市中自然的深刻理解，將其作為學習社區(qū)權(quán)利與行動經(jīng)驗的一部分（Hough,2004）。設計策略作為一個適應性和包容性的學習過程，其制定應考慮長期可行性、生態(tài)恢復以及我們所處的自然和當代景觀。

表01 六個案例研究分析的設計原則——1 北杜伊斯堡公園；2 特茹河和特蘭考河公園；3荷蘭西煤氣廠公園；4 克利夫蘭凱霍加河河谷；5頓河磚瓦廠；6千禧公園

這個土地改造項目表明，無論目標如何，對于生態(tài)修復、文化和自然歷史符號的保護，頓河河谷磚瓦廠項目改造策略是一個優(yōu)秀的案例研究。

4.2.3 確定規(guī)劃設計原則

考慮到6個分析案例研究的不同數(shù)據(jù)來源和信息（比如文獻回顧，采訪關鍵參與者和場地使用者），確定了37個設計原則，如表1所示（其中一些適用于各種案例研究分析）。然而，即使下列原則和定義是經(jīng)過深思熟慮的過程產(chǎn)生的，也未能涵蓋所有的或最后的結(jié)果。但是，這個設計工具可以在設計過程中為設計師提供幫助，并為將來后工業(yè)改造建議奠定基礎（表01）。

5 后記

人們?nèi)找嬲J識到，后工業(yè)景觀重新融入城市文脈，代表著社會不同層次上的寶貴資源，有助于提升景觀的價值和宜居性，提高生活質(zhì)量，同時轉(zhuǎn)移現(xiàn)存的城區(qū)的增長。這種方法降低雜亂無序的擴展并恢復了自然過程及其功能。由此，后工業(yè)重建被當作可持續(xù)發(fā)展策略的一種熟練的工具。就這點而言，除了便于識別后工業(yè)重建項目中所應用的一系列規(guī)劃設計原則外，目前的研究在后工業(yè)改造的理論與實踐兩方面均獲得共識。

不過，即使未充分利用地區(qū)的再開發(fā)可能作為一種可行的、處理日益城市化進程的方式，仍然存在一個疑問：這些場地該以何種方式來進行重建。就這點而言，土地利用總體規(guī)劃的方法應在積極主動的政策和重新活躍再生之間，在立法、行政和教育政策之間，以及城市生活改造過程中公民、機構(gòu)和市場之間確定適當?shù)钠胶?。在這種情況下，如果在規(guī)劃過程中適當?shù)慕Y(jié)合后工業(yè)景觀，則有可能成為城市發(fā)展的驅(qū)動力，營造一個積極的形象，吸引投資者和旅游者。

這次調(diào)查顯示，被遺棄的后工業(yè)景觀的重建應遵循設計原則，促進可持續(xù)發(fā)展，減少對環(huán)境的負面影響，并促進經(jīng)濟繁榮，提高社會包容性和生活質(zhì)量。設計和管理之間是環(huán)環(huán)相扣的關系，是未來城市設計進程和戰(zhàn)略中一個非常重要的特性。然而，更深入的重建過程分析表明在今天的規(guī)劃活動中普遍缺乏“戰(zhàn)略眼光”。在清醒地反省這種公認的缺乏社會遠景意識中，設想的框架能夠?qū)で笞銐虻臅r間來解決開發(fā)問題，在不遠的將來，后工業(yè)土地改造必然會成為一種城市景觀。

然而，研究表明，在整個過去的幾十年，即使一些研究人員和學者致力于研究發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略和框架，以創(chuàng)造更好的景觀改造項目，但重建計劃仍然傾向于過分主觀的，直接依賴于設計師的決心和意圖。就這方面而言，方法體系的應用被認為是一個熟練的工具來降低設計的主觀性，在不同知識領域創(chuàng)建一個共同點便于溝通，提高未來重建計劃的質(zhì)量。

此外，值得注意的是，所使用的方法允許創(chuàng)建一組規(guī)劃設計原則與那些尊重場地及其背景環(huán)境的景觀相連接；文章中涉及到的應用于后工業(yè)景觀改造的設計原則正好代表了規(guī)劃設計的可能性，可能有助于提高可持續(xù)發(fā)展的設計。由此，應提出其他幾個規(guī)劃方案。再者，應注意這些原則的應用，除了積極的影響，并不是任何項目成功的必要條件。一旦沒有萬全之策就必須執(zhí)行場地及其背景研究，分析與綜合。 且不論重建計劃中規(guī)劃設計原則的實用性，場地的特殊性和設計師的創(chuàng)造力將繼續(xù)成為整體設計過程最關鍵的元素。

綜上所述，所提出的方法將提升后工業(yè)土地改造項目的質(zhì)量，增加景觀特色，促進多功能有彈性的景觀創(chuàng)造，能夠接納變化，提升生活質(zhì)量。

6 致謝

筆者在此要感謝葡萄牙阿爾加維大學空間和組織動力學中心的財政支持。

注釋：

①作者在原文中介紹了6個案例分析，分別是德國北杜伊斯堡公園、葡萄牙特茹河和特蘭考河公園、荷蘭西煤氣廠公園、美國凱霍加河流域蜿蜒的纖道小徑、加拿大多倫多頓河河谷磚瓦廠和美國芝加哥千禧公園，限于篇幅，譯者刪去了國內(nèi)讀者熟悉的德國北杜伊斯堡公園、荷蘭西煤氣廠公園、美國芝加哥千禧公園3個案例，但在總結(jié)和各表格仍保留3個案例的分析和數(shù)據(jù)。

②本文所有圖片版權(quán)歸路易斯·勞瑞斯所有，并經(jīng)其許可使用。

1 Introduction-the Status of the Postindustrial Landscape

The shift of emphasis from the design of single and isolated objects to the design of larger urban surfaces, thus increasing the impact of the envisioned interventions, highlighted the need to create an original body of landscape architecture theory, providing a structure based on specific principles from which prescriptions for action may be drawn. Under this framework, theoretical reflection and discussion have been identified as an important issue in revitalizing crosscultural exchange in landscape architecture and urban design. Additionally, the fact, landscape is continuously changing (Jinyan, Xiangzheng and Tianxiang, 2003; and Pinto-Correia, D' Abreu and Oliveira, 2001) as a result of complex and interacting natural processes coupled with planned and unplanned actions by man enlarge this scenario.However, this ongoing landscape transformationconsidering not only post-industrial ones-has raised global concerns (Czerniak, 2006; Musacchio, et al.,2005;and Spirn, 1998), as it is the need to rethink landscape and protect the environment. This is especially true for previously developed areas that are now abandoned or underused. In fact, instead of consuming green lands, public and private representatives need to acknowledge that it is imperious to redevelop "brown lands", giving them a new life, in order to achieve a more sustainable urban setting (De Sousa, 2003; Panagopoulos and Loures, 2007; and Portney, 2003).

The relevance and popularity of these land transformation approaches are increasingly recognized, and as referred by Reed (2005, p.15)"nearly every significant new landscape designed in recent years occupies a site that has been reinvented and reclaimed from obsolescence or degradation,as cities in post-industrial era remake and redefine their outdoor spaces". Consequently questions such as: What should be done with these landscapes?Which functions might these areas acquire in the future? What makes these spaces underutilized?What obstacles keep these landscapes from being transformed? Who is responsible for transforming them? Who is best qualified to do it? Is this process a single profession endeavor? Among others,remain to be answered.

For this reason, new methodologies and frameworks are needed. In a period when "(…)that seemingly old-fashioned term landscape has curiously come back to vogue" (Corner, 2006), it is urgent to reinvent the way in which these postindustrial landscapes are transformed, considering not only environmental issues but also historic and cultural values, economic opportunities, and social needs. The origin of this growing concern may be traced from a period when industry, became one of the main protagonists in the transformation of the city (Rossi, 1982).

The globalization of industry had a profound effect on industrial areas all over the world, contributing to the appearance of several derelict and underused post-industrial landscapes(Antrop, 2000a) that contribute to reduce the development potential and the quality of life(Handley, 1996). This scenario, coupled with urban growth (urban population in the world was approximately 2.4 billion in 1995 number that is expected to duplicate at about the year 2025) and with the population concentration in urban areas(Antrop, 2000b), facelandscape architects and other planning specialists with a great challenge:How to plan the future of those post-industrial landscapes facing the "new" growth management paradigm?-Communities, cities and regions must accommodate economic development and population growth while sustaining and enhancing the spirit of the community, the sense of place,and the physical environment-the answer to this question is far from being simple, but the reuse of post-industrial sites, in order to develop multifunctional landscapes, instead of consuming new ones is seen as a great possibility to help achieving those goals (Loures and Panagopoulos,2007).

The fact that these urban areas became economically and environmentally degraded and socially distressed through industrial contamination(DoE,1991) make clear that redevelopment projects should enable the redefinition of these landscapes through community-based, interdisciplinary action that integrates multifunctional longer-term solutions based on social, economic and ecological objectives, as it has happened throughout several countries in the world (Fig.01-04).

2 Methodology| Envisioned Design Framework

As it has long been realized urban planning and open space preservation are part of the same process and the most effective way to protect open space is by effectively containing and managing urban growth (Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson,2004). In this regard, land transformation policies,strategies and methodologies have been considered an important tool for urban containment, fostering urban redevelopment and revitalization (Adams and Watkins, 2002; Urban Land Institute, 2004;Willem, 2009).

However, these contributions and the principles they integrate, have not been adequately assessed regarding post-industrial land transformation efforts.Still, this approach may be considered a proficient approach to address urban sprawl, increasingly viewed as significant and growing land-use problem that encompass a wide range of social, economic and environmental issues (Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson,2004; Brueckner, 2000; and Johnson, 2001).

Throughout the last decades several researchers and academics have been committed with the development of strategies that enable the creation of better landscape transformation projects, which are normally excessively subjective and dependent on the designer's determination, fact that is considered to be a limitation. For this reason new frameworks and methodologies are required.

However, these methodologies require the use of several methods throughout the research,including quantitative and qualitative strategies,which at their best are not linear methods but circle back upon issues, principles, and information, as many times as necessary (Wortham, 2007).

In this regard, considering the approach according to which, learning by experience is considered a proficient tool for urban redevelopment the proposed methodology (Fig.05) was divided in two main sections: case study research (developed projects-learning by experience) and practical case studies (site specific characteristics and uniqueness of the place).

As is perceptible case study research and the analysis of best-practice examples of post-industrial redevelopment constitute the basis of the proposed framework.

Regarding this type of analysis, Yin (1994)presented five research strategies (although acknowledging the existence of several others)on his book "Case Study Research-Design and Methods": experiment; survey; archival analysis;history and case study.

Nonetheless, the Case Study Research method is considered by several authors a very important research strategy (Yin, 1994; Agranoff and Beryl,1991; George, 1979; and Lucas, 1974), which allows not only the analysis and comparison among similar case studies, but also the development of a systemic analysis, where the subjective component is much smaller.

These intrinsic characteristics enable the use of this method in various fields of knowledge as it is the case of medical research, sociology, engineering,planning, architecture and landscape architecture.Furthermore, according to Francis (1999 and 2001) this method is a very useful tool to study and analyse existing projects and the way in which certain problems and design constrains were solved and which strategies should be followed or avoided.

The use of this method will enable the creation of a set of post-industrial landscape redevelopment planning and design principles that may inform the creation of a specific theoretical basis to increase the quality of similar redevelopment proposals, i.e.researching and analysing the practical principles applied in successful post-industrial landscape reclamation projects in order to create a set of principles that will inform the creation of specific design theory.

3 From Theory to Practice-brief Overview

Considering the afore-presented methodology the selection of study areas constitutes an essential component of the research, representing an important aspect to the accomplishment of the present study. In this regard, the selection of "bestpractice" case studies (as well as the definition of a practical case study area) should consider a set of predefined parameters. Regarding the selection of "best practice" case studies, the process was anchored in the collection and analysis of as much post-industrial land transformation projects as was possible within the boundaries set by schedule and economic constraints.In this sense, throughout the investigation as many post-industrial land transformation case studies as possible should be identified. After identifying the project it is necessary first to address the availability of data,and second to verify the possibility to access, collect and use that data. If the necessary information is available, and the case study considered relevant for the research, considering the characteristics of the practical study area, the project will be addressed.

If the number and magnitude of the addressed case studies is significantly high, in order to keep the review manageable, analysis should be limited in several ways. First, the research should focus not only on post-industrial land transformation projects which present higher similarity with the practical study area, but also that considered the pre-design goals | objectives, established throughout the analysis of the practical study area.Second, the selected projects should obey to a set of selection principles that included:(i) transferability and/or contextual relevance to the study area (postindustrial land transformation) considering not only the specific principles and frameworks of the design strategy used in the redevelopment process,but also size, social diversity, cultural relevance and impact of the project; (ii)the establishment of a direct contact at least with a specialist connected with the project (i.e. designer or project coordinator) is considered mandatory, so that the inferential ideas and conclusions presented during case study description and analysis, regarding not only the design strategy adopted, but also the presented solutions, the construction options,the program, and specially the planning and design principles used, could be confirmed by a specialist with precise and effective knowledge about the project;(iii) project implementation-the project should be implemented or partially implemented (several times the design solutions presented in international competitions tend to be increasingly iconographic and sometimes arguably unsustainable); and (iv) site visits- the site of the project should be visited by the person responsible for the analysis of the case study, whenever possible more than once, in order to analyze the way the space functions and how people use it, performing some formal interviews with the users.

Considering these principles and even if there is an inevitable value judgement in any process to ascertain relative importance, the method is considered to bring a degree of objectivity and transparency to the assessment, enabling the selection of the cases that respond better to research objectives.

Still, given that the proposed methodological framework comprises the analysis of multiplecase studies, it is essential to have a protocol for all studies. In this sense and still according to the same author a typical protocol should integrate the following sections: an overview of the case study project; field procedures; case study questions; and a guide for the case study report. Considering this information, for each case study the subsequent aspects should be investigated and analysed:location; design team; project typology and use;size; brief description of the project background |history; significance and uniqueness of the project;goals; program and design strategy; lessons learned and project limitations.

After the analysis of each of the selected case studies, following the aforementioned protocol the planning and design principles used in the redevelopment proposal will be heuristically defined, using an approach similar to the one proposed by Lang (1994) in order to identify normative theories in urban planning. After identification each planning and design principle will be described according to the ideas and definitions expressed in the literature. Whenever possible, this definition should be gauged with the design team of the project in which the principle was identified, in order to grant a more precise and objective information regarding the definition and the goals of each principle.

Additionally, the fact that theory development in planning and design arena, requires normally the evaluation of practical projects by experienced practitioners (which are normally imbedded within planning and design firms that are too busy to publish and share their knowledge) "describing effective planning and design principles for reclamation, explaining useful normative theories in creating efficient landscape configurations, and illustrating valuable planning and design processes to achieve reclamation success" (Burley, 2001),reduces both the capacity for theoretic development and dissemination. Furthermore, even if a lot of case studies and best practices examples can be found in literature, they are often poorly addressed and normally do not focus the issues that might influence and inform theory development. In this regard,the analysis of postindustrial land transformation case studies considering both design principles and strategies used in redevelopment, constitutes a relevant framework towards the definition of new design and planning normative theories, enabling somehow the reduction of the existing dissimilarity regarding theoretic and practical development in the field of urban planning and design.

In this regard, throughout this investigation several case studies were identified, addressed and analyzed considering the method presented by Francis (1999) in order to identify a set of planning and design principles that might inform the creation of a specific postindustrial land transformation theory. The use of this method will enable the identification of a set of post-industrial landscape redevelopment planning and design principles that may inform the creation of a specific normative theory that might serve as a basis for the redevelopment of similar proposals.

4 Analysed Case Studies

Consisting in "a well-documented and systematic examination of the process, decisionmaking and outcomes of a project that is undertaken for the purpose of informing future practice, policy, theory and/or education" (Francis,1999), case studies are considered to be a very important research strategy and a proficient tool to present and analyze specific projects (Wang and Burley, 2008; Francis, 1999; Agranoff and Beryl 1991; George, 1979), which enable the analysis and comparison among similar case studies.

This method has been applied, successfully,in various fields of knowledge as it is the case of medical research, sociology, engineering,planning, architecture and landscape architecture.Furthermore, it is a very useful tool to study the way in which certain design problems were solved and which strategies should be followed or avoided (Francis, 2001 and 1999). Case studies are considered a source of practical information, and an effective way to teach by example, of acquiring problem solving skills and of developing useful evaluation strategies.

Additionally they are also very useful to explain or even predict theory related to practice. In this case multiple case studies are looked at with an eye for generalizable lessons or principles that can advance knowledge (Francis, 1999). The evidence for multiple-case studies is generally considered stronger, reason why the research is considered more robust (Yin, 1994). However, multiple-case study analysis requires extensive resources and time.

The fact that this method uses a variety of research techniques (experimental, quasi-experimental, historical, storytelling | documentation as well as multi-method approaches) and sources of data and evidence constitutes one of the strengths of the process (Lube, 2003; and Francis, 1999), which enables researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions, to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation or phenomenon, etc. (Soy, 1997),increasing the validity and reliability of the research.

Additionally, as mentioned by Moudon (2007,p.364), "while research is usually associated with substantive information and with understanding specific phenomena, it is expected that research for urban design will yield information that has normative dimensions and that eventually helps design", proposing recommendations for future design.

In this sense, considering the premise according to which nothing is more important to theory than its respective practice (Demo, 1996),the use of case studies was considered to be very helpful, given that, as it was pointed out before,while not always used with this objective, case studies can play an important role in developing new theory.

4.1 Identifi ed Case Studies

Considering the lack of common theory regarding postindustrial redevelopment, and the objective to collect, analyze and organize as much information as possible about postindustrial land transformation projects,bearing in mind the limitations of the present research, 346 postindustrial land transformation case studies(Fig.06), located all over the world, were identified throughout the application of several research techniques.

4.2 Analyzed Case Studies

After identifying the 346 land transformation projects it was necessary first to address the availability of data regarding the project, and second to verify the possibility to access, collect and use that data. If the necessary information was available, and the case study was considered relevant for the present research, the project was addressed, describing the used approaches, the applied design strategies, lessons learned from such redevelopments and the ways in which designers have transformed postindustrial remnants, solving problems and envisioning new futures for these redevelopments (Fig.07).

Following these procedures 139 postindustrial land transformation case studies from all over the world were selected. In order to understand and evaluate the complex relationship between post-industrial landscape redevelopment and urban design, considering an effective analysis towards theory building, a detailed analysis of a subset that represented specific examples of successful industrial heritage protection, public participation and involvement and multifunctional redevelopment as catalysts of urban regeneration and economic development encouraging wider access to arts and cultural activity and facilities was selected.

In this regard six case studies were selected for analysis. These case studies were divided into two groups considering their geographic location: one composed by European projects and the other by North American projects. This division was created during the investigation, as a result of the case study selection process, which besides the acknowledge quality of the project, considered also information availability and accessibility, i.e. it does not mean that one could not have selected other projects, but rather that the selected projects were the ones that better fit the research.

4.2.1 European Precedents

Within Europe the selected projects was:Parque do Tejo e do Tranc?o in Portugal.

Parque do Tejo e do Tranc?o in Portugal

Design Team: PROAP Estudos e Projectos de Arquitectura Paisagista, Lda. + Hargreaves Associates (consultant)

Typology | Use: Urban Park

Size: 90 hectares

Budget: approximately 18.500.000 €

Project brief description:

Located at the oriental part of Lisbon, in an area marked by abandonment and environmental degradation at the confluence of two rivers from which it takes its name, "Parque do Tejo e do Tranc?o" is one of the most emblematic examples of post-industrial landscape transformation projects realized in Portugal. Before being a park, the site,was composed by several industrial structures like a landfill, scraps, a sewage treatment plant and many obsolete industrial buildings (Craveiro, 2003; and Spagna, 2002). All together these industrial facilities contributed to increase the contamination levels of this landscape, which before the intervention was considered one of the most polluted areas of Lisbon (Castel-Branco, 1998a). This scenario- high indexes of contamination and visible degradation-coupled with the proximity of the Natural Reserve of the estuary of Tagus and the intention to develop the world exposition Expo'98 constituted decisive arguments for the intervention in this specific area.

With approximated 90 hectares, the park is linked both physically and thematically with the Park Expo'98 which covering an area of 340 hectares was mentioned to be a self-contained urban center, with residences, stores, transportation infrastructure, parking facilities and parks, able to re-establishing the link between the city and the river, while contributing to define the city as a whole (Comeau, 2009). "The plan called for the creation of an attractive public green area, equipped for a new leisure culture that would create demand for the urban real-estate development" (Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.46). In this sense,while regenerating a disturbed environment, the proposed design would transform the site into a new attraction within the greater Lisbon area(Comeau, 2009).

Following the main objectives defined in the urban development project established by "Parque EXPO, SA"-e.g. environmental requalification and urban revitalization-the proposed project aimed to develop a new urban centrality with educational,cultural and leisure activities capable of attracting millions of people yearly, while creating jobs,promoting wealth, and improving life's quality(Craveiro, 2003). In this regard the introduction of citizens' needs, identified through extensive studies regarding potential commercial and residential occupants of this area, within the redevelopment strategy proposed for the area was a significant objective of the project (Comeau, 2009).

The design strategy envisioned for the park results somehow from a synthesis between traditional and recreational facilities for environmental education, considering the development of a multifunctional program (Lambertini, 2006). In fact the proposed design (Fig.08) enabled the transformation of the former derelict site into a multifunctional landscape considering at the same level a place for leisure and recreation and environmental education.

This project highlights the fact that by promoting changes in land-use patterns and landvalues and by developing territorial specialization and new infrastructure, it is possible to turn derelict landscapes (as the one in which the "Parque do Tejo e do Tranc?o" was created) into increasingly attractive sites (Blokhuis and Schaefer, 2007). In fact the creation of the park was essential to convert one of the most polluted and repulsive areas of the city into one of the most attractive ones. This fact is even more relevant when analyzed under the lamps of the former characteristics of the site, which according to Andresen (1998a, p.8) was "(…) a place of chaos, a scary place".

However, even if the "Parque do Tejo e do Tranc?o" project was considered a "(…) pilot project in Portugal, one in which the population was to witness the transformation of a run-down area of rubbish and urban waste into a living green area" (Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.55), it presented some limitations since the beginning.

4.2.2 North American Precedents

Within North America the selected projects were: Cuyahoga River Valley-Towpath trail extension in the USA; Don Valley Brickworks in Canada; and Millennium Park in the USA.

4.2.2.1 Cuyahoga valley, towpath trail extension-a multifunctional heritage connectorin Cleveland, Ohio-United States of America.

Design Team | Planning Commission:Commissioners: Tim McCormack, Jimmy Dimora,and Peter Jones; Planning Director: Chris Ronayne.

Typology | Use:Multifunctional|Cultural Trail

Size: Length-6 miles, approximately 9,7 km;Trail corridor area-16,2 hectares; Potential parkland associated with corridor-81 hectares.

Budget: 47.810.000$-approximately 39.150.000€

Project brief description: One of the most relevant aspects of this project, beyond its use for both transportation and recreation purposes is the broad environmental regeneration strategy applied not only in the path itself but also in the surrounding landscape (Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002). In fact, the significance of this project is somehow connected with the opportunity to refocus attention on the natural systems of the river valley, given that for a long period the development strategy for the city was based mainly in achieving the better urban configuration regarding manufacturing production and the movement of goods by water, rail, and road (Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002). Additionally, the fact that the North Cuyahoga Valley had an abundance of cultural and historic assets which represent times of the past and communities of the present provided an opportunity to explore these resources (Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1999), creating an example of how this area could be redeveloped and of how industrial heritage could be used as medium for urban redevelopment.

This scenario enabled the development of a unique project considering refined concepts of land transformation, industrial heritage and environmental quality, exploring the best physical features of the valley, i.e. the river's edge and its vistas which take advantage from the hillside overlooking the valley and the downtown skyline(Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002). Considering public participation and multifunctionality the developed project was viewed an outstanding opportunity to highlight the potential of the Cuyahoga Valley as an asset with enough environmental and aesthetic qualities to unify the region, and to solve the problems inherent to industrial decline and population loss.

The applied design strategy was based in the innovative spirit that contributed to the evolution of Cleveland's history, from the golden transportation and industrial period to the ongoing public-private partnerships regarding the revitalization of the postindustrial waterfront extending to downtown Cleveland and several traditional neighborhoods(Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002).

Additionally, by integrating the development of a comprehensive sustainability strategy for the city, the selected approach enabled the city to tackle several socio-cultural and economic problems and to create value, increasing citizen's life quality(Cleveland Land Lab, 2008).

Including an inventory of existing assets and conditions within the area served by the path, the program was developed considering several route alternatives, their feasibility and impacts at different levels (Baker, 2009; and Kinsley et al. 2006),taking into account the resolution of liability and contamination problems in order to meet the EPA cleanup standards for recreational uses.

Besides the generally acknowledged environmental and aesthetic benefits, the delimitation of the corridor intended also to develop the region socio-economically and culturally, reason why it the design includes both the creation of numerous recreational, cultural and economic opportunities associated to a multifunction pass-fig.09 (where it is possible to walk, bicycle, jog, and hike), which will contribute to create jobs and promote touristic development,and the development of a wildlife corridor into the urban area that will emphasize biodiversity(Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1992).

This project revealed that now more than ever, it is increasingly recognized that a place is built on its past and that history has a high profile in people's lives. For this reason, new approaches should be aware of the opportunities that could be opened up for a more cultural use of post-industrial landscapes.

By highlighting the existing industrial heritage the development of the Towpath Trail enabled Cleveland's Metropolitan authorities to transform several vacant and abandoned properties from a liability into an asset through a partnership of private developers, local government, and community organizations. In fact, as it happens in several other postindustrial land transformation projects, community involvement enabled the creation of a sense of pride and belonging that increased the acceptance of the proposed projects.However, the main limitation identified in this project is somehow connected with community involvement, given that the way the information gathered during public hearings and meetings,was introduced in the delineation of the trail was according to some residents approached during site visits, not appropriate, once several important local landmarks were not properly served by the trail. Still, the overall opinion is that this project highlighted the fact that, even if derelict industrial landscapes are often viewed as a symbol of abandonment and decline, in particular situations they might represent the catalyst for the rebirth of any city, and that very often small-scale projects might have a great influence not only in enhancing landscape aesthetics, local ecology, and property values.

4.2.2.2 Don Valley Brickworks- Toronto-Canada

Design Team: Michael Hough- Hough Stansbury Woodland Limited

Typology | Use: Ecological Public Park

Size: 16,5 hectares

Budget: 3.500.000$-approximately 2.800.000€

Project background | History-brief description

By revealing the simultaneous use of ecological restoration for water quality improvements, habitat creation, and leisure and recreational opportunities,this redevelopment project highlights the fact that if designed appropriately, recreational areas may be compatible with storm water management, habitat restoration and water quality improvement. In this regard, the Don River Valley Brick Works project contributed to change perception and expectations on urban open space, transforming the former vision from parks as simple lawns with shrubs and trees to landscapes where varied wildlife habitats are merged with leisure and recreation opportunities.

In addition, the fact that the Don River watershed had lost most of its wetlands, as a result of the intense industrialization process in the 19th century followed by increasing urbanization in the 20th century which contributed for the canalization of several Don's River tributaries (City of Toronto,2007), highlights the significance of the proposed ecological restoration and environmental education project. Being inevitably tied to human activity and natural processes, the proposed design constitutes an" appropriate way of understanding heritage as a continual dynamic process of renewal" (Hough,2004, p.52).

Furthermore, the ecological based redevelopment of this former industrial landscape contributed to highlight the fact that pleasant surprises might arise by working with natural processes instead of trying to control them. The uniqueness of the proposed design was soon recognized, as it is attested by the several awards it has received (Foster, 2005).

The central objective of the proposed design was to heal the Don River while promoting conditions to link heritage and environmental restoration, highlighting the process through which, the industry that once contributed to the degradation of the valley has now become part of its restoration. Although the incorporation of the former industrial buildings in the proposed design was very limited, they were a key element of the design strategy, according to the premise that history is a dynamic process of change and adaptation learning from the past to create a relevance to present needs (Hough, 2004). As pointed out by Foster (2005), even if the city was not willing to emphasize the existing industrial heritage, the visionary landscape architect who developed the project, viewed this as an important asset to connect the site with the city and to represent industrial evolution and technological adaptation.

While redevelopment of brownfield sites has traditionally been economically focused, the strategy applied at the Brick Works site, enabled a balance between economic and ecological benefits(Nichols, 2009), providing, at the same time,additional green space for Toronto's residents(Foster, 2005).

Following the major project initiated in the mid-1990s by the regional Conservation Authority to restore the Don Valley Brickworks and its associated quarry, Michael Hough proposed a ecological based design to transform this heritage site of great significance to Toronto's natural and cultural history (Hough, 2004), into an appealing innovative ecological design based on the existing cultural and natural heritage and its relation to the surrounding urban context, offering several good examples of ecological design and sustainable place making strategies (Lister, 2007).

Moreover, as mentioned by Foster (2005,p.333), "(…) the site in many ways bears hallmarks of good design proposed by theorists of both ecological restoration and environmental aesthetics,combined with principles championed by thinkers and practitioners in the fields of landscape architecture and landscape ecology". Not unlike the afore analyzed case study Duisburg-Nord designed by Peter Latz, "the Brickworks site moves the notion of "park" well past nature preservation and into the realm of a learning landscape, designed to teach sustainability by example" (Lister, 2007,p.52). In this regard and considering the central objective of linking heritage and environmental restoration, the design strategy was based on interrelated themes: "the internationally significant geology of the quarry's north slope that reveals the changing climates which the region has experienced over geological time and the animals that once lived here; its wetland gardens created to provide life for insects, fish and birds, and to restore water quality to a diverted, once buried stream that flows into the Don River, thus contributing to the renewal of the Don River"(Hough, 2004, p.52).

Viewed as an ongoing process of renewal and healing, which will change and adapt in response to changing condition, the developed project (Fig.10) considered several key principles which were based not only in biological, social, economic and political issues, but also in the thoughtful comprehension of nature in cities as a part of a learning experience begun with community empowerment and action (Hough, 2004). As an adaptive and inclusive learning process the applied design strategy was developed considering longterm viability, ecological restoration, and our place in nature and within contemporary landscapes.

This land transformation project showed that regardless the objectives the Don Valley Brick Works redevelopment strategy constitutes an outstanding case study regarding ecological rehabilitation and conservation of cultural and natural history icons.

4.2.3 Identifi ed Planning and Design Principles

Considering the various sources of data and information regarding the six analyzed case studies (e.g. literature review, interviews with key participants and site users), 37 design principles were identified – table 1 (some of them were used in various analyzed case studies). However, even if the following principles and definitions were gathered throughout a deep and thoughtful process,they do not constitute an end or final output, but a design tool that might help designers during the design process and serve as a basis for future postindustrial redevelopment proposals (Table 01) .

Though the importance of the presented principles towards post-industrial land transformation design is acknowledge one should consider that being part of a specific normative theory towards, they need to be coupled with designers' expertise and site specificities and characteristics in order to achieve successful outcomes.

5 Final Considerations

It is increasingly acknowledge, that postindustrial landscapes, when reintegrated into the urban context, represent a valuable resource to society at different levels, improving landscape value and livability and contributing to increase life's quality, while diverting growth toward extant urban areas. This approach reduces sprawl and reinstates natural processes and functions. This is why postindustrial redevelopment has been considered as a proficient tool to contribute to sustainable development. In this regard, besides facilitating the identification of a set of planning and design principles used in post-industrial redevelopment projects the present research,enabled the creation of a common ground for postindustrial redevelopment, both theoretically and practically.

Still, even if it is recognized that the redevelopment of underused areas might constitute a feasible way of dealing with the progressive urbanization, there is still a question mark hanging over what kind of redevelopment these spaces can look forward to. In this regard, land use planning methods should identify the right balance and timing between pro-active policies and re-active regeneration projects, and between legislative,administrative and educational policy engines,engaging citizens, authorities and markets in a process of reinvention of urban living. In these circumstances post-industrial landscapes if integrated properly in the planning process, may become a driving force for urban growth, fostering a positive image that will attract investors as well astourists.

Table 01-Design principles identified on the 6 analysed case studies-1 Duisburg Nord; 2 Tejo-Tranc?o; 3 Westergasfabriek; 4 Cleveland Valley; 5 Don River Brickworks; 6 Millennium Park

This investigation indicated that the redevelopment of derelict post-industrial landscapes should follow design principles that promote sustainability, reduce negative environmental impacts, and foment economic prosperity,social inclusion and life's quality, reason why the interlocking relationship between design and management is a particularly important feature in future urban design processes and strategies.Nonetheless, a deeper analysis of the redevelopment process highlights that there is a general lack of`strategic vision' in today's planning activities. In conscious opposition to the lack of community visioning that is recognized; the envisioned framework is considered to enable the development of solutions that seek to satisfy a time, which is not so far off, where post-industrial land transformation will become a necessity in the urban landscape.

However, research has shown that, even if,throughout the last decades several researchers and academics have been committed with the development of strategies and frameworks to enable the creation of better landscape transformation projects, redevelopment proposals still tend to be excessively subjective and directly dependent on the designer's determination and intentions.In this regard the application of the proposed methodological framework is considered to be a proficient tool to decrease design's subjectivity,creating a common ground in which different fields of knowledge might communicate enhancing the quality of future redevelopment proposals.

Additionally it is relevant to notice that the used approach allowed the creation of a set of planning and design principles connected with the landscape and that respects site and context;and that the application of the design principles,presented in this article, in the reclamation of postindustrial landscapes represents just a planning and design possibility that may contribute to increase the sustainability of the design. Several other planning options may be proposed. Moreover,one should notice that the application of these principles, besides positive, does not constitute a sine qua non equation to the success of any project. Site and context research, analysis and synthesis must be performed, once "no size fits all". Regardless of the relevance of the application of the identified planning and design principles in the redevelopment proposals site specificity and designer creativity continue to be crucial elements of the overall design process.

In conclusion it is believed that the presented approach will reinforce the quality of postindustrial land transformation projects increasing landscape character and promoting the creation of multifunctional resilient landscapes, capable to incorporate change and enhance life's quality.

6 Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge financial support given by the Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO).

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