雷旭丹 徐 菲 李玉皓
腫瘤壞死因子α在多發(fā)性硬化及髓鞘再生中的研究進(jìn)展
雷旭丹 徐 菲 李玉皓△
腫瘤壞死因子(TNF)-α是一種多向性細(xì)胞因子,存在可溶性和跨膜兩種形式,分別結(jié)合腫瘤壞死因子受體(TNFR)1和TNFR2發(fā)揮功能。近年來研究發(fā)現(xiàn),TNF-α/TNFR通路在多發(fā)性硬化的發(fā)生和髓鞘再生中發(fā)揮了重要作用。TNFR1通過死亡受體介導(dǎo)凋亡信號(hào)通路,導(dǎo)致少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞及神經(jīng)元的凋亡,從而引起髓鞘脫失等神經(jīng)退行性改變。TNFR2通過一系列級(jí)聯(lián)反應(yīng)促進(jìn)少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞前體細(xì)胞的增殖以及分化,從而促進(jìn)髓鞘的再生,在多發(fā)性硬化中有積極作用。
腫瘤壞死因子α;受體,腫瘤壞死因子;多發(fā)性硬化;髓鞘;髓鞘再生;綜述
腫瘤壞死因子(TNF)-α是一種多向性細(xì)胞因子,以可溶性TNF-α(soluble TNF-α,sTNF)和跨膜TNF-α(transmembrane TNF-α,tmTNF)2種形式存在,分別與腫瘤壞死因子受體(TNF receptor,TNFR)1和TNFR 2結(jié)合后,發(fā)揮其生物學(xué)作用,參與炎癥反應(yīng)、調(diào)節(jié)免疫功能、抑制腫瘤生成等,與多種疾病密切相關(guān)[1-2]。多發(fā)性硬化(multiple sclerosis,MS)是中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)最常見的慢性脫髓鞘疾病,屬于自身免疫性疾病。在遺傳因素和(或)環(huán)境因素作用下,髓鞘組織受到損傷發(fā)生脫失,進(jìn)而神經(jīng)軸突退化,患者出現(xiàn)不同程度的感覺、運(yùn)動(dòng)和識(shí)別等功能障礙[3]。在疾病早期,髓鞘組織可以有一定程度的再生,病情有所緩解,但隨著病程延長(zhǎng),髓鞘再生能力逐漸下降,疾病呈進(jìn)行性進(jìn)展[4]。截至目前,多發(fā)性硬化發(fā)病機(jī)制不明。近年的研究顯示,TNF-α/TNFR信號(hào)通路在髓鞘損傷與再生中發(fā)揮了重要作用[5-6]。本文主要就TNF-α和TNFR在多發(fā)性硬化中的研究進(jìn)展綜述如下。
1.1 TNF-α TNF-α由tnf-α基因編碼,是單拷貝基因。人類的tnf-α位于6號(hào)染色體,長(zhǎng)度為3.6 kb,轉(zhuǎn)錄翻譯后形成233個(gè)氨基酸的單體跨膜前體蛋白(tmTNF),TNF-α轉(zhuǎn)移酶將胞質(zhì)尾區(qū)的157個(gè)氨基酸水解后,剩余的76個(gè)氨基酸形成可溶性單體蛋白(sTNF),而后tmTNF和sTNF分別聚集形成有活性的同源三聚體[7-8]。TNF-α包括4個(gè)外顯子和3個(gè)內(nèi)含子,大部分TNF-α由第4個(gè)外顯子編碼,外顯子1和2主要包含前導(dǎo)肽序列。TNF-α由多種免疫細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生,以激活的巨噬細(xì)胞為主,此外還有T淋巴細(xì)胞、B淋巴細(xì)胞、自然殺傷細(xì)胞、樹突細(xì)胞以及單核細(xì)胞等;在中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng),TNF-α主要由小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生。
1.2 TNFR sTNF-α以及tmTNF-α分別與相應(yīng)的受體TNFR1(p55,CD120a)和TNFR2(p75,CD120b)結(jié)合,進(jìn)而激活相應(yīng)的下游通路,發(fā)揮生物學(xué)功能。盡管TNFR1和TNFR2都是胞外區(qū)富含半胱氨酸的Ⅰ型跨膜糖蛋白,但兩者在表達(dá)模式、配體親和力、胞質(zhì)尾區(qū)結(jié)構(gòu)以及下游通路的激活途徑不盡相同。TNFR1在胞質(zhì)區(qū)有死亡結(jié)構(gòu)域(death domin,DD),主要作用是誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡;而TNFR2不包含胞外的死亡結(jié)構(gòu)域,而是包含TIM結(jié)構(gòu)域(T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain),主要通過與死亡因子受體相關(guān)因子(TRAF)結(jié)合,介導(dǎo)細(xì)胞激活和生存的信號(hào)通路[9-10]。在小鼠模型中,TNFR1在灰質(zhì)神經(jīng)元中高度表達(dá),尤其在沿微管相關(guān)蛋白樹突的索狀結(jié)構(gòu)處,此外在白質(zhì)的星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中也高水平表達(dá);在尸檢中TNFR1在神經(jīng)元和髓鞘化的少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞上表達(dá),與髓鞘相接觸的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞、巨噬細(xì)胞或星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞表達(dá)TNF-α,從而通過TNFR1對(duì)髓鞘環(huán)免疫。TNFR2在白質(zhì)中星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞高度表達(dá),在少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞以及少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞前體細(xì)胞中也表達(dá),在尸檢中TNFR2主要在星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞以及小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中表達(dá)。由此可見,TNFR1和TNFR2均存在于少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中,并在其功能調(diào)節(jié)中發(fā)揮作用[9]。
臨床觀察表明,MS患者腦髓液中TNF-α的表達(dá)水平顯著升高,峰值與磁共振探測(cè)到的病變部位呈正相關(guān),并且慢性進(jìn)展型患者腦脊髓液中TNF-α的表達(dá)水平顯著高于穩(wěn)定型患者[11]。擴(kuò)展殘疾狀況評(píng)分(expanded disability status scale,EDSS)是臨床上常用的MS評(píng)估量表,在慢性進(jìn)展型MS患者中,TNF-α與EDSS有密切關(guān)系,隨著TNF-α水平升高,EDSS的療效指數(shù)增加,患者的預(yù)后變差[12]。
2.1 sTNF-α和TNFR1在脫髓鞘中的作用 在雙環(huán)己酮草酰二腙(cuprizone)誘導(dǎo)的腦胼胝體脫髓鞘小鼠模型中,無論是在脫髓鞘期還是髓鞘再生階段TNF-α的表達(dá)量都升高,并且TNF-α陽性細(xì)胞的數(shù)量也增加,提示TNF-α與髓鞘脫失和再生都有關(guān)。但是,在TNF-α–/–小鼠中,髓鞘的缺失和再生都沒有發(fā)生明顯的改變,僅在發(fā)病初期髓鞘脫失有所減輕,而在最后還會(huì)完全脫失;雖然少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞積累的數(shù)量并沒有發(fā)生變化,但是少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的凋亡數(shù)量減少。這說明,TNF-α與少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的增殖以及募集沒有關(guān)系,可能通過促進(jìn)少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞凋亡在急性脫髓鞘階段加劇病情[5]。而sTNF-α信號(hào)通路主要介導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡,F(xiàn)as相關(guān)死亡域蛋白(Fas-associated with death domain protein,F(xiàn)ADD)在sTNF-α信號(hào)通路的表達(dá)中有重要作用,體外實(shí)驗(yàn)中基因敲除FADD的少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞可以完全抵抗死亡受體調(diào)節(jié)的細(xì)胞凋亡。在實(shí)驗(yàn)性自身免疫性腦脊髓炎(experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis,EAE)小鼠模型中,敲除少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中的FADD可以顯著改善小鼠的臨床指標(biāo)[13]。這表明sTNF-α信號(hào)通路在多發(fā)性硬化中可能起負(fù)面作用。Xpro1595是一種新型的先導(dǎo)分子,能迅速與sTNF-α三聚體中的亞基交換,使sTNF-α失去活性,中斷sTNF-α信號(hào)通路,但對(duì)tmTNF-α沒有作用[14]。Xpro1595處理組的EAE小鼠,臨床指標(biāo)良好,前后肢均無癱瘓的現(xiàn)象,軸突保護(hù)力好,髓鞘再生數(shù)目多,髓鞘脫失數(shù)目少,髓鞘疏松程度較輕。因此,在EAE的起始階段主要是sTNF-α通過死亡受體調(diào)節(jié)少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的凋亡,放大了炎癥反應(yīng),最終導(dǎo)致軸突的損傷和神經(jīng)元的凋亡[9]。
TNFR1在同一個(gè)細(xì)胞中可以觸發(fā)2種相反的反應(yīng),即促進(jìn)細(xì)胞生存和加速細(xì)胞凋亡。促進(jìn)細(xì)胞生存的途徑主要是通過核因子(NF)-κB信號(hào)通路,而促進(jìn)細(xì)胞凋亡的通路主要通過腫瘤壞死因子受體相關(guān)死亡結(jié)構(gòu)域(TRADD)募集Fas相關(guān)死亡結(jié)構(gòu)域(FADD)[15]。受體相關(guān)蛋白1(receptor-interacting protein-1,RIP1)、RIP3以及細(xì)胞凋亡蛋白酶原8形成死亡復(fù)合體Ⅱ[16],調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞凋亡蛋白酶8(caspase 8)以及隨后的caspase 3和caspase 7的活化,從而引起細(xì)胞凋亡。在FADD缺乏或者caspase 8受到抑制時(shí),RIP1和RIP3組成凋亡復(fù)合體,通過釋放多種促進(jìn)凋亡的信號(hào),導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞發(fā)生凋亡[17-18]??乖蔬f細(xì)胞如樹突細(xì)胞向T細(xì)胞呈遞抗原,導(dǎo)致效應(yīng)T細(xì)胞大量增殖,后者可以通過被破壞的血腦屏障,分泌TNF-α,激活星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞,生成一氧化氮和谷氨酸,引起少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的損傷[19-20]。因此,sTNF-α可以通過啟動(dòng)死亡受體信號(hào)通路來損傷少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞以及神經(jīng)細(xì)胞,從而加重多發(fā)性硬化病的病情。
2.2 TNFR2在髓鞘再生中的作用 在cuprizone誘導(dǎo)的腦胼胝體脫髓鞘模型的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),TNFR2在少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞前體細(xì)胞的再生及分化中有重要作用[5],而其調(diào)節(jié)再生的機(jī)制還不明確。TNF-α可誘導(dǎo)趨化因子CXCL12的表達(dá),趨化白細(xì)胞進(jìn)入中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)并且調(diào)控少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的分化。血管周圍的星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞都表達(dá)CXCL12,從而使浸潤(rùn)的白細(xì)胞局限在血管周圍,并且可以促進(jìn)少突膠質(zhì)母細(xì)胞的成熟。在cuprizone誘導(dǎo)的脫髓鞘模型中,少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的凋亡導(dǎo)致小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的激活,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生TNF-α,星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中活化的TNFR2誘導(dǎo)CXCL12的表達(dá),CXCL12又激活CXCR4,導(dǎo)致少突膠質(zhì)前體細(xì)胞增殖并分化形成可髓鞘化的成熟少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞。因此,TNFR2可以通過加強(qiáng)少突膠質(zhì)前體細(xì)胞增殖和分化來增加少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的數(shù)量,并形成髓鞘保護(hù)軸突,對(duì)MS有積極的作用[21]。
雖然動(dòng)物模型和體外實(shí)驗(yàn)關(guān)于TNF-α在髓鞘損傷以及再生中的作用取得了很多進(jìn)展,但仍有許多問題尚不明了。例如,在MS進(jìn)展期雖有少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的聚集,都沒有髓鞘再生的出現(xiàn)[22]。此外,TNFR2主要在少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞表面表達(dá)[23],但其通過何種機(jī)制保護(hù)少突膠質(zhì)前體細(xì)胞仍未知。隨著有關(guān)TNF-α/TNFR通路的深入研究,將為闡明髓鞘損傷與再生的機(jī)制提供更多的分子學(xué)依據(jù),也將為藥物開發(fā)提供新的思路。
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(2014-05-20收稿 2014-07-14修回)
(本文編輯 魏杰)
The Research Progress of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha in Multiple Sclerosis and Remyelination
LEI Xudan,XU Fei,LI Yuhao△
Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenviroment and Neurovascular Regulation,School of Medicine of Nankai University, Tianjin 300071,China
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E-mail:liyuhao@nankai.edu.cn
Tumor necrosis factor(TNF)-α is a pleiotropic inflammatory cytokine,which is produced chiefly by activated macrophages.Two forms of TNF-α,soluble and transmembrane,can bind tumor necrosis factor receptor(TNFR)1 or TNFR2,respectively.Recently,a concept has emerged that TNF-α/TNFR pathway plays an important role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and remyelination.TNFR1 induces death of oligodendrocytes via death receptor-mediated apoptosis, which leads to demyelination or other neurodegenerative changes.However,TNFR2 has a positive effect on multiple sclerosis.It facilitates the proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells,thus promoting remyelination.
tumor necrosis factor-alpha;receptors,tumor necrosis factor;multiple sclerosis;myelin sheath;remyelination;review
R744.5
A
10.3969/j.issn.0253-9896.2014.11.027
國(guó)家科技支撐計(jì)劃項(xiàng)目(2012BAI08B06);國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金資助項(xiàng)目(81301080);教育部留學(xué)回國(guó)啟動(dòng)基金([2012]1707)
南開大學(xué)醫(yī)學(xué)院、天津市腫瘤微環(huán)境與神經(jīng)血管調(diào)節(jié)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室(郵編300071)
△通訊作者 E-mail:liyuhao@nankai.edu.cn