胡微蕾,徐青葉,唐 斌,王世貴
(杭州師范大學(xué)生命與環(huán)境科學(xué)學(xué)院,杭州 310036)
微孢子蟲Microsporidia 是一類多樣化的、廣泛存在的專性細(xì)胞內(nèi)寄生的原生生物,能感染從原生生物到人的幾乎所有的動(dòng)物(Winters and Faisal,2014),是許多經(jīng)濟(jì)昆蟲、魚類、兔類、皮毛動(dòng)物、嚙齒類的重要病原。超過600 多種的微孢子蟲可以寄生在昆蟲體內(nèi),通過侵染昆蟲的中腸、馬氏管、脂肪體、卵巢甚至神經(jīng),引起昆蟲的流行病(Lee et al.,2010;Solter et al.,2012)。它們不僅在昆蟲種群中水平傳播,還能垂直傳播,引起下一代的感染,影響昆蟲的生殖健康和后代發(fā)育,是自然界中制約昆蟲種群密度的重要因素之一(Dunn et al.,2001)。利用微孢子蟲防治農(nóng)業(yè)和林業(yè)害蟲,可有效持續(xù)地控制害蟲的種群密度,在害蟲生物防治中占有重要的地位,是一種很有前途的防治方法與途徑,在害蟲的持續(xù)治理上具有重要意義。
微孢子蟲屬于原生動(dòng)物亞界微孢子蟲門微孢子綱微孢子蟲目,是一類直徑僅2μm-40μm 的營專性寄生生活的單細(xì)胞真核生物(向恒等,2014)。目前已報(bào)道的微孢子蟲約170個(gè)屬、種類超過1400種(Witter and Weiss,1999)。微孢子蟲的寄主范圍包括無脊椎動(dòng)物和脊椎動(dòng)物,特別是昆蟲和魚類(Aurrecoechea et al.,2011;Moretto et al.,2012),其中有14種微孢子蟲可以感染人類,并導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的免疫缺陷癥狀(Didier and Weiss,2006)。
大多數(shù)微孢子蟲主要寄生于昆蟲,僅有少數(shù)微孢子蟲寄生于魚類和哺乳動(dòng)物(Senderskiy et al.,2014)。研究表明,微孢子蟲可侵染400種以上的昆蟲,幾乎覆蓋了整個(gè)昆蟲綱中各個(gè)目的昆蟲(汪方煒和魯興萌,2003),且從卵到成蟲的任何一個(gè)發(fā)育階段的昆蟲都有可能受微孢子蟲的感染(蒲蜇龍,1994),某些昆蟲還受到多種微孢子蟲的寄生(冉紅凡等,2002)。
一種微孢子蟲可侵染同一科的數(shù)種昆蟲,如蝗蟲微孢子蟲可侵染東亞飛蝗Locusta migratoria、毛足棒角蝗 Dasyhippus barbipes、白邊痂蝗Bryodema luctuosum luctuosum、亞洲小車蝗Oedaleus asiaticus、寬須蟻蝗Myrmeleotettix palpalis、紅翅皺膝蝗Angaracris rhodopa 和鼓翅皺膝蝗Angaracris barabensis(冉紅凡等,2002),但也有一些種類的微孢子蟲可侵染數(shù)科甚至數(shù)目的昆蟲,如榆葉甲微孢子蟲Nosema aenescens sp.nov.不但可侵染鞘翅目的榆螢葉甲Pyrrhalta aenescens,還可以侵染鱗翅目的亞洲玉米螟Ostrinia furnacalis 和直翅目的東亞飛蝗L.migratoria(問錦曾和黃虹,1995)。
微孢子蟲通常以成熟的孢子存在于自然界中,被昆蟲取食后在寄主消化道內(nèi)發(fā)芽(溫發(fā)園等,2005)。其侵染過程可分為兩步:首先,孢子在內(nèi)部壓力增高時(shí)被活化,在此壓力下,孢內(nèi)的極絲快速外翻彈出。極絲外翻時(shí),極絲蛋白PTP3 不斷地聚合生產(chǎn)并包裹于極絲外,同時(shí)極膜層進(jìn)入中空的極絲,后極泡膨大,不斷產(chǎn)生的壓力將極膜層和核壓入極管中,使孢原質(zhì)通過中空的極絲注入寄主細(xì)胞,此過程亦稱為孢子發(fā)芽(Moretto et al.,2012)。其次,完成萌發(fā)后,極絲穿過寄主腸道的圍食膜,刺進(jìn)腸壁細(xì)胞,緊接著孢質(zhì)沿著極絲管腔被壓出。這樣,極絲像一根接種針,將孢質(zhì)注入寄主細(xì)胞內(nèi),從而完成整個(gè)侵染過程(Delbac and Polonais,2008)。
不同種類的微孢子蟲往往會(huì)侵染寄主的不同器官:蝗蟲微孢子蟲主要侵染蝗蟲的脂肪體(Henry and Oma,1981);玉米螟微孢子蟲Nosema furnacalis 主要侵染玉米螟的馬氏管、神經(jīng)節(jié)、消化道和卵巢(問錦曾,1965);甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua 微孢子蟲主要侵染其脂肪體、馬氏管和中腸(陳廣文等,1992);有少數(shù)種類侵染寄主的神經(jīng)節(jié)(Franzen,2005),如微孢子蟲Nosema mesnili 可侵入斜紋夜蛾Spodoptera litura 幼蟲神經(jīng)節(jié)外層,導(dǎo)致幼蟲急性癱瘓(范秀華等,2000)。
對其感染后超微結(jié)構(gòu)的研究結(jié)果表明,微孢子蟲的致病機(jī)理主要是由于微孢子蟲在寄主細(xì)胞中大量增殖、堆積和機(jī)械擠壓作用,使細(xì)胞內(nèi)的內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)、線粒體、細(xì)胞核等細(xì)胞器受到嚴(yán)重破壞,細(xì)胞的代謝功能嚴(yán)重受損,最后導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞破碎死亡。這一過程將逐漸擴(kuò)大至寄主的整個(gè)組織或整個(gè)器官,使這些組織或器官功能喪失,從而導(dǎo)致寄主死亡(Kermani et al.,2013)。昆蟲感染后發(fā)病進(jìn)程較為緩慢,其中一部分幼蟲染病后,可一直發(fā)育到成蟲,并能產(chǎn)卵,同時(shí)經(jīng)卵把微孢子蟲傳至下一代(Campbell et al.,2007)。
昆蟲微孢子蟲病的傳播有垂直傳播和水平傳播兩種途徑(Dunn and Smith,2001)。水平傳播的主要方式是經(jīng)口感染。如歐洲玉米螟微孢子蟲N.pyrausta 在玉米螟種群內(nèi)的水平傳播是經(jīng)由被感染幼蟲污染的玉米莖進(jìn)行的,幼蟲排泄物中的孢子和被取食污染的蛀孔是主要的污染源(Andreadis,1987)。高的宿主密度、長的幼蟲發(fā)育歷期及低的低齡幼蟲死亡率均有利于水平傳播的進(jìn)行(Raina et al.,1995)。
垂直傳播的主要方式是經(jīng)卵感染(汪方煒和魯興萌,2003)。在垂直傳播中,微孢子可能侵染卵母細(xì)胞,隨卵黃物質(zhì)通過內(nèi)吞作用進(jìn)入雌成蟲的卵而傳給下一代,使下一代幼蟲受到侵染(Huo et al.,2014)。如歐洲玉米螟微孢子蟲孢子侵染玉米螟幼蟲卵巢組織的上皮層和基質(zhì)細(xì)胞,有時(shí)生殖細(xì)胞也受到侵染。孢子存留在被侵染組織中,至幼蟲羽化為成蟲后侵入成蟲的生殖器官中,并侵染營養(yǎng)細(xì)胞和卵母細(xì)胞,這就導(dǎo)致了經(jīng)卵傳染給下一代的垂直傳播(冉紅凡等,2002)。經(jīng)研究證明,被蝗蟲微孢子蟲侵染的非洲飛蝗也可以經(jīng)卵把孢子傳給后代,至少可以傳染14 代(石旺鵬等,2003)。垂直傳播的作用是多變的(Dunn et al.,2001),有時(shí)候被認(rèn)為是水平傳播的補(bǔ)充,別的地方則被看成是兩個(gè)替換選項(xiàng)之一,但單一的垂直傳播也有報(bào)道(Terry et al.,1999)。
昆蟲微孢子蟲可寄生于任何發(fā)育階段的昆蟲。受感染昆蟲的病理學(xué)表現(xiàn)一般為慢性和亞致死病變,隨著微孢子蟲在體內(nèi)的增殖,會(huì)表現(xiàn)出一系列顯著的組織病變以及異常的發(fā)育和行為特征(閻亮亮,2007;Selman and Corradi,2011)。微孢子蟲的各個(gè)發(fā)育時(shí)期都不具有線粒體,其營寄生生活的營養(yǎng)來源完全依賴于寄主細(xì)胞的線粒體來供給(Katinka et al.,2001)。因此,微孢子蟲可以導(dǎo)致寄主細(xì)胞的細(xì)胞核和胞質(zhì)之間正常的代謝作用被破壞,掠奪其養(yǎng)分、分泌蛋白酶溶解寄主細(xì)胞內(nèi)容物、機(jī)械破壞寄主細(xì)胞完整性。隨著破壞作用的逐漸擴(kuò)大和加劇,導(dǎo)致寄主組織和器官喪失功能,寄主昆蟲死亡。家蠶Bombyx mori 等昆蟲感染微孢子蟲后,體內(nèi)某些與營養(yǎng)生理和泌絲生理密切相關(guān)的物質(zhì)(如堿性磷酸酶、谷丙轉(zhuǎn)氨酶、過氧化物酶、海藻糖酶、蛋白質(zhì)、糖類等)的活性或含量會(huì)發(fā)生顯著變化(汪方煒和魯興萌,2003)。
微孢子蟲擁有廣泛的酶和調(diào)節(jié)蛋白,可以分泌到感染細(xì)胞中,從而從細(xì)胞和分子層次控制寄主的代謝過程(Senderskiy et al.,2014),并且絕大多數(shù)微孢子蟲可以直接接觸感染寄主細(xì)胞質(zhì)。微孢子蟲的基因組測序表明:(1)微孢子蟲可以控制寄主的基因調(diào)節(jié)(Tsaousis et al.,2008;Cornman et al.,2009;Keeling et al.,2010);(2)微孢子蟲利用宿主的代謝系統(tǒng)可以獲得特殊的轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)蛋白(Cuomo et al.,2012);(3)預(yù)測信號肽負(fù)責(zé)分泌的蛋白可能影響了微孢子蟲寄主細(xì)胞(Scanlon et al.,1999;Campbell et al.,2013)。微孢子蟲可能像其他細(xì)胞內(nèi)寄生蟲一樣,通過某種機(jī)制抑制在感染寄主細(xì)胞中的凋亡通路(Dussaubat et al.,2012)。研究表明微孢子蟲可以控制寄主的基因調(diào)節(jié)和代謝過程,從而影響寄主的免疫健康(Moretto et al.,2012)。
內(nèi)寄生的微孢子蟲可以侵染昆蟲的卵巢,影響寄主昆蟲脂肪體合成卵黃原蛋白的能力,從而影響昆蟲的生殖健康,削弱其繁殖能力(Huo et al.,2014),如歐洲玉米螟微孢子蟲的孢子可以侵染玉米螟成蟲的生殖器官,侵染營養(yǎng)細(xì)胞和卵母細(xì)胞(Khurad et al.,1991);而蝗蟲微孢子蟲的孢子甚至可嚴(yán)重感染卵巢管周圍的脂肪體(張龍和周海鷹,1995)。感染微孢子后的蝗蟲脂肪體合成卵黃原蛋白(vitellogenin,Vg)能力明顯下降,直接影響釋放到血淋巴中的Vg 含量嚴(yán)重不足,最終使得卵母細(xì)胞無法從血淋巴中攝取足量Vg,導(dǎo)致整個(gè)卵巢發(fā)育嚴(yán)重不良,卵黃蛋白(vitellin,Vt)含量極低(陳建新等,2002)。蝗蟲微孢子蟲的寄生,可導(dǎo)致感病蝗蟲脂肪物質(zhì)的大量消耗(陳建新等,2000;2002)。脂肪體合成Vg 的場所及其功能一旦被破壞,會(huì)直接導(dǎo)致感病蝗蟲繁殖能力的削弱甚至喪失(張龍和周海鷹,1995)。
微孢子蟲的感染常導(dǎo)致雌蟲繁殖力降低,未受精卵增加,甚至可能改變昆蟲種群的性比例,還會(huì)干擾寄主昆蟲的光周期反應(yīng),阻止滯育,進(jìn)而影響昆蟲的蛻皮和變態(tài)。受感染昆蟲的產(chǎn)卵量和卵的孵化率下降的原因尚未探明,可能與微孢子蟲對寄主卵巢的破壞和儲(chǔ)存能量的消耗有關(guān)(汪方煒和魯興萌,2003)。
一般認(rèn)為細(xì)菌性內(nèi)共生體的垂直傳播可聯(lián)合操縱寄主的繁殖(Bandi et al.,2001),在垂直傳播中,孢子通過雌成蟲的卵傳給下一代,使下一代幼蟲受到侵染,同時(shí)可扭曲后代的性別比例(Terry et al.,2004;Iroside et al.,2011),如被蝗蟲微孢子蟲侵染的非洲飛蝗通過卵細(xì)胞繼續(xù)影響下一代。微孢子蟲在卵黃中積累,胚動(dòng)后,卵黃和微孢子蟲被封閉在中腸的胚胎中。發(fā)芽的微孢子蟲繼而感染中腸的上皮細(xì)胞并入侵其內(nèi)部組織,使胚胎在發(fā)育過程中即受到侵染,故剛孵出的幼蟲的死亡率很高(Selman and Corradi,2011)。如被感染的蝗蟲經(jīng)卵把孢子傳給后代,感染的后代在每一代的死亡率均高于未受感染的蝗蟲(Raina et al.,1995)。雌性蝗蟲對微孢子蟲的負(fù)荷顯著大于雄性,導(dǎo)致蝗蟲后代性別比例進(jìn)一步失調(diào),對害蟲產(chǎn)生持續(xù)有效的治理效果(Plischuk et al.,2013)。
昆蟲微孢子蟲是一種具有廣闊前景的生物防治資源,微孢子蟲的特性使它具備了作為生物殺蟲劑的良好條件。它的生活周期短并具有形成大量孢子的能力,孢子外被主要成分為蛋白質(zhì)和幾丁質(zhì),能抵抗不良環(huán)境的影響,在昆蟲體外維持生活力可達(dá)數(shù)月至數(shù)年之久(Duncan et al.,2012);某些微孢子蟲可以行經(jīng)卵傳染的垂直傳播,使其可以越年持續(xù)流行,具有持續(xù)性防治效果(王朝華和程洪杰,2008),且能調(diào)控寄主的后代性比,使其維持在較低種群水平(Terry et al.,2004;Iroside et al.,2011);微孢子蟲防治害蟲成本顯著低于化學(xué)防治,對人畜等其它動(dòng)物無害,有利于保護(hù)天敵,保持生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的生物多樣性,防止農(nóng)業(yè)生態(tài)環(huán)境的農(nóng)藥污染(曹成全等,2008)。
利用微孢子蟲防治害蟲,可有效地持續(xù)控制害蟲的種群密度,并在害蟲防治中取得了良好的效果。作為重要的生物防治手段,蝗蟲微孢子蟲Nosema locustae 受到了廣泛關(guān)注(張龍和嚴(yán)毓驊,2000;Lange and Azzaro,2008;張 龍,2011;Plischuk et al.,2013;扈鴻霞等,2014),研制出的微孢子蟲制劑已應(yīng)用在田間試驗(yàn)并取得了較好的防治效果(Henry,1971;王麗英等,1990,1994;Lange and Azzaro,2008;Solter et al.,2012;扈鴻霞等,2014)。
目前根據(jù)不同微孢子特性和效果,已開發(fā)出相應(yīng)的微孢子生物農(nóng)藥,如針對蝗蟲微孢子和玉米螟微孢子等,用于防治蝗蟲和玉米螟等,并取得了很好的效果(王麗英等,1990;問錦曾,1995;閻亮亮,2007;王朝華和程洪杰,2008)。微孢子防治害蟲已經(jīng)在害蟲生物防治領(lǐng)域進(jìn)行了比較廣泛的研究和應(yīng)用,相信在不久的將來,微孢子蟲將作為一類重要的微生物殺蟲劑在生物防治等領(lǐng)域發(fā)揮其應(yīng)有的作用。
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