By+Emre+Soyer
Who doesnt love a “how to succeed” list? Theyre fun to read and easy to share, which perhaps explains why there are so many of them. And the advice they give often sounds reasonable: The World Economic Forum published a post, in cooperation with Business Insider,1 listing 14 things successful people do before breakfast. It includes items such as drinking water and making your bed. A list that Forbes published claims every successful person shares this quality: “They know when to stay and when to leave.” This list, from Entrepreneur, advises readers to stop seeing problems, and start seeing opportunities; this one, from Inc., encourages readers to give up needing approval and fixating on their weaknesses.2
But as palatable3 as these lists are, they can do damage. There are several reasons why they may be not only useless but also potentially harmful to decision makers, managers, and entrepreneurs.
Evidence is anecdotal4. Most of the advice these lists contain is based on subjective interpretations of personal accounts, not on systematic, scientific analyses. Unless advice has been evaluated through evidence-based methods, you cant judge its validity. In addition, half-baked analyses of anecdotal evidence often blur the lines between cause and consequence. Is someone successful because they avoided meetings, or are they able to avoid meetings because they are successful? A host of behaviors that successful people supposedly share—not caring what others think of them, avoiding meetings, putting first things first, saying no to almost everything—may be luxuries that only the extremely successful can enjoy, and only after they became successful in the eyes of others. Thus some behaviors are what success has brought them, and not the other way around.
Research doesnt always transfer to different contexts. Some lists do draw heavily from research, but academic research is often very context-specific. As often happens with complex problems, the solutions and their applications are more nuanced than the forms theyre presented in and depend heavily on the context and circumstances in which people find themselves.
Failures are silent. In The Black Swan, Nassim Taleb recounts an anecdote Cicero told about the Greek poet Diagoras of Melos.5 When Diagoras was told that praying saves sailors from drowning, he wondered about those who prayed but drowned anyway.
Prayer receives credit for saving sailors because all those who survived prayed. Yet this strategy is utterly useless if those who died also prayed, which is a fair assumption. If everybody prayed and only a few survived, then praying doesnt really matter. It just seems like it does to those who survived and those who can observe them.
This is what social scientists call “survivorship bias6”. Taleb refers to the people who didnt survive as “silent evidence.”These are the outcomes that we dont get to see; their absence leads to a false sense of effectiveness of certain actions. Research suggests that while we are incredibly skilled when it comes to learning from what we can readily observe and experience (such as widely publicized success stories), we are equally incompetent in acknowledging what we dont see (such as vast numbers of obscure failures). This renders us vulnerable to a biased intuition that success is more deterministic than it really is.
In fact, in a situation where there are scores of failed attempts, the more concrete and specific the advice, the more it assumes that the people who didnt succeed are either naive or unintelligent. Analyses based on the successful alone ignore the possibility that many people apply the same strategies but fail.
A key ingredient missing in all these lists, a vital piece of information that decision makers need to judge their actual chances of success, is the base rate. How many people, ideas, organizations entered the game wanting to be successful? How many eventually prospered? The larger the difference between these two figures, the less the value of any specific advice or any version of “common traits of successful people” analysis.
Success is personal. While any given success is specific to a particular person and context, advice often treats it as common and constant, something independent of time and space that we can easily generalize about.
For advice to be relevant, the beginnings, aims, and conditions of those who are analyzed and those who receive the advice should match, at least approximately. Yet our careers, families, social lives, priorities, and visions may differ significantly from those who are hailed as7 successful by a particular expert. Given the things they had to do and give up for success, we might not wish to trade places with them.
Hence, there are opportunity costs to following even harmlessseeming advice. Taken too seriously, it can cause us to make trade-offs that we shouldnt make or to engage in actions that are incompatible with our personality.8 If you decide to get up at 5 AM every morning because a selected group of people does that—but youre actually wired9 to do your best work late at night—then youre hurting your own, specific chances to succeed.
One final caveat10: Its not just personal “how to succeed” lists that suffer from these sorts of problems; its also company-level“how to win” guides. A main reason why is that times change, the world evolves, and technology advances. As a result, most advice for success, especially in business, is going to be obsolete sooner than one would like. The world is always changing. And so are the secrets of success.
Its easy to define a situation as a success or a blunder11 once it has happened. Thats why abilities like recognizing opportunities or knowing when to stay and when to leave seem so magical. One can analyze these episodes in hindsight, with laser-sharp precision,12 but the rest of us have to face them in the uncertain, ever-changing future.
誰不愛讀“如何成功”的清單呢?這類清單數(shù)不勝數(shù),因?yàn)樗鼈兗扔腥ぃ直阌诜窒?。他們給出的建議聽來不無道理。世界經(jīng)濟(jì)論壇與商業(yè)內(nèi)幕網(wǎng)站合作發(fā)布了一篇帖子,列出了14件成功人士早餐前做的事情,包括清晨飲水和整理床鋪?!陡2妓埂房堑那鍐涡Q每位成功人士都具備這樣的品質(zhì):“他們知道何時(shí)留下,何時(shí)離開”?!镀髽I(yè)家》建議讀者不要總盯著問題看,而應(yīng)看到問題背后的機(jī)遇。《Inc.》則鼓勵(lì)讀者不要期待他人的贊許和妄自菲薄。
但這些讀來好聽的清單卻也是一把雙刃劍。它們可能不僅無用,而且會(huì)對(duì)決策者、管理者和企業(yè)家起到負(fù)面影響,原因有以下幾點(diǎn):
證據(jù)都來自道聽途說。這些清單給出的建議往往是對(duì)個(gè)人描述的主觀闡釋,缺乏系統(tǒng)的科學(xué)分析。只有基于證據(jù)的方法才能驗(yàn)證它們的有效性。此外,對(duì)道聽途說的消息做片面的分析,常常模糊了因與果的界限。一個(gè)人成功是因?yàn)樗麄儾粎⒓痈鞣N會(huì)議?還是因?yàn)樗麄兪浅晒θ耸克圆槐貐⒓樱磕切┍徽J(rèn)為是成功人士會(huì)做的事——不在乎他人的眼光、躲避各種會(huì)議、要事優(yōu)先,有權(quán)拒絕幾乎所有事——可能只是特別成功的人才能享受的奢侈,而且是在他們?nèi)〉昧藙e人眼中的成功之后才有權(quán)這樣做。所以說,某些做法是由成功本身帶給他們的,而非相反。
研究并不適用于所有的情形。一些清單的確是根據(jù)分析研究數(shù)據(jù)得出的,但是學(xué)術(shù)性研究常常局限于特定場(chǎng)景。一般來說,復(fù)雜問題的解決方案和實(shí)際操作比其呈現(xiàn)的形式更微妙,并在很大程度上取決于人們當(dāng)時(shí)所處的環(huán)境。
失敗是無聲的。在《黑天鵝》一書中,納西姆·塔勒布回憶起西塞羅談到的關(guān)于古希臘邁洛斯詩人迪亞戈拉斯的一件軼事。當(dāng)?shù)蟻喐昀孤犝f祈禱可以讓水手免于溺水而亡時(shí),他困惑于那些祈禱了卻仍未幸免于難的水手們。人們之所以認(rèn)為祈禱能庇佑水手,是因那些活著回來的水手們都祈禱過。但是出于公平假設(shè),如果遇難的水手也都祈禱了的話,這個(gè)論調(diào)就站不住腳了。如果每個(gè)水手都祈禱了而只有一小部分活下來了,那么祈禱根本沒有用。祈禱似乎只對(duì)于那些恰巧活下來且注意到這一點(diǎn)的人有用。
社會(huì)學(xué)家將這稱之為“幸存者偏差”。塔勒布稱那些未能幸免于難的人為“無聲的證據(jù)”。我們無法看到這些結(jié)果,而這種缺失造成了某些行為有效的虛假表象。研究表明,人們非常善于從易于觀察到的經(jīng)驗(yàn)中學(xué)習(xí)(如廣為人知的成功故事),而我們同樣不善于承認(rèn)自己看不到的事實(shí)(如大量不為人知的失?。?。因此,我們常常帶有偏見地認(rèn)為成功是命中注定的,而事實(shí)并非如此。
事實(shí)上,在多次嘗試失敗后,提出的建議越具體明確,就越可以推導(dǎo)出失敗者要么幼稚,要么智力平平。基于成功的分析法忽略了那些同樣運(yùn)用成功秘訣卻仍然失敗的可能性。
這些成功秘訣清單中缺失了一個(gè)關(guān)鍵點(diǎn),即發(fā)生概率,它是決策者評(píng)估自己成功幾率的重要信息。有多少人和組織帶著無數(shù)的創(chuàng)意和想法抱著成功的心態(tài)投入到一項(xiàng)事業(yè)中?又有多少最終取得了成功?這兩組數(shù)據(jù)的差別越大,關(guān)于如何成功的特定建議或者各種版本的“成功人士普遍特質(zhì)”的分析就越?jīng)]有價(jià)值。
成功是個(gè)人的。雖然任何一次成功都是不同的個(gè)體在特定情況下取得的,但關(guān)于成功的建議卻往往認(rèn)為成功是共通的、持續(xù)的,它獨(dú)立于時(shí)間和空間之外,我們甚至可以隨意概括。
只有當(dāng)被分析對(duì)象的出發(fā)點(diǎn)、目標(biāo)和條件與效仿者匹配,至少大致吻合,關(guān)于成功的建議才能有用。然而,我們的職業(yè)、家庭背景、社會(huì)生活、側(cè)重點(diǎn)以及視野可能和那些某個(gè)專家認(rèn)定的成功人士有很大的差別。想想他們?yōu)榱顺晒λ冻龅暮退鶢奚?,我們可能并不希望和他們互換位置。
因此,即便是遵循看起來無害的建議也有相應(yīng)的代價(jià)。如果過于在意這些成功秘訣,你可能會(huì)做出自己不該做的妥協(xié)或是有悖于自己個(gè)性的事情。如果你本身最佳工作時(shí)間在深夜,卻僅僅為了模仿一些成功人士,而決定在凌晨五點(diǎn)起床,那么你其實(shí)在減少自己獨(dú)有的成功幾率。
最后聲明一點(diǎn):不僅是個(gè)人層面的“如何成功”清單面臨這些問題,公司層面的“如何取勝”指南也存在這些問題。其中一個(gè)主要原因是時(shí)代在變化,世界在發(fā)展,科技也在進(jìn)步。因此,大多數(shù)關(guān)于成功的秘訣,尤其是在商業(yè)領(lǐng)域,過時(shí)的速度比你想象的還要快。世界一直在改變,成功的秘訣也是如此。
事后很容易定義一件事情的成敗。這就是為什么辨別機(jī)遇或把握去留的能力看起來極具魔力。一個(gè)人可以用犀利精確的后見之明分析這些事情,但大多數(shù)的我們只能在未知、瞬息萬變的未來面對(duì)它們。
1. The World Economic Forum: 世界經(jīng)濟(jì)論壇,是一個(gè)非營利性基金會(huì),成立于1971年,總部設(shè)在瑞士日內(nèi)瓦,因每年冬季在瑞士滑雪勝地達(dá)沃斯舉辦年會(huì)而聞名(故又稱“達(dá)沃斯論壇”),論壇聚集全球工商、政治、學(xué)術(shù)、媒體等領(lǐng)域的領(lǐng)袖人物,討論世界面臨的最緊迫問題;Business Insider:商業(yè)內(nèi)幕,美國一家商業(yè)和娛樂新聞網(wǎng)站。
2.《福布斯》(Forbes)、《企業(yè)家》(Entrepreneur)和《Inc.》都是美國知名商業(yè)雜志;fixate: 專注于。
3. palatable: (想法、方法等)合意的,可接受的。
4. anecdotal: 軼事的,傳聞的。
5. The Black Swan:《黑天鵝》,美國金融業(yè)人士、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析師納西姆·尼古拉斯·塔勒布的金融理論著作,書中研究了高度不可能事件以及不可預(yù)期事件的強(qiáng)大影響力;Cicero: 西塞羅,古羅馬著名政治家和演說家。
6. survivorship bias: 幸存者偏差,是一種認(rèn)知偏差,其邏輯謬誤表現(xiàn)為過分關(guān)注于人或物從某些經(jīng)歷中幸存,而忽略了不在視界內(nèi)或沒有幸存的人或物。
7. hail sth. as: 稱贊,把……譽(yù)為。
8. trade-off: 權(quán)衡,協(xié)調(diào);incompatible:不協(xié)調(diào)的,不一致的。
9. be wired to: 天生就。
10. caveat: 警告,告誡。
11. blunder: 大錯(cuò),愚蠢的錯(cuò)誤。
12. hindsight: 事后聰明,事后領(lǐng)悟;lasersharp: 精準(zhǔn)的。laser是“激光”,有“最準(zhǔn)的尺”之稱。
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筆者在首都機(jī)場(chǎng)候機(jī)廳的書店發(fā)現(xiàn),上架率最高的圖書大都是所謂工商界人士的成功秘籍,往往還配有光盤錄像,在書店的屏幕上滾動(dòng)播放??茨切蜗笈c口才,這些企業(yè)家個(gè)個(gè)是卓越的演說家、狂熱的“布道者”。顯然,常出入機(jī)場(chǎng)又渴望成功的中產(chǎn)階級(jí)很容易迷信這個(gè),于是這種圖書以及演講會(huì)被推動(dòng)成一個(gè)巨大的產(chǎn)業(yè),圖書資料要價(jià)數(shù)百元,而聽一個(gè)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)演說動(dòng)輒數(shù)千甚至上萬元。我有時(shí)納悶,一個(gè)真正成功的企業(yè)家哪有時(shí)間干這個(gè),大概也不會(huì)在乎這點(diǎn)“小錢”,恐怕都是“槍手”所為吧。我們這個(gè)社會(huì),尤其是那些已步入小康卻并不滿足的人們,近些年來熱衷的無非是兩件事:一、探聽成功人士的所作所為所思,恨不得全盤照搬,夢(mèng)想捷足登上財(cái)富榜;二、執(zhí)著于神秘主義,拋開主流,追逐偏狹暗流,難怪所謂的偏方、秘籍、私房菜甚至方術(shù)大行其道。其實(shí),這兩者還有內(nèi)在的聯(lián)系。選文無疑是給這些人迎面潑去一盆冷水。
當(dāng)然,過來人的經(jīng)驗(yàn)之談并非完全沒有參考價(jià)值,有時(shí)對(duì)于剛?cè)腴T者確有啟蒙功效。目前學(xué)校比較流行的一個(gè)做法是,考上名牌大學(xué)的畢業(yè)生回校給尚在拼搏的學(xué)弟學(xué)妹談高考成功經(jīng)驗(yàn),職場(chǎng)成功人士受到畢業(yè)大學(xué)的邀請(qǐng)回母校辦職場(chǎng)講座,上座率還相當(dāng)高。曾有人鄭重地向魯迅這位“成功人士”討教“文章做法”與“青年必讀書目”,記得他的回答是“沒有,也從未留意過”,“少讀,或者不讀線裝書”。討教者一定會(huì)覺得這個(gè)一向被贊為“青年導(dǎo)師”的魯迅先生的回答是敷衍了事。不過,魯迅先生的“戲言”中其實(shí)含有真意:文章怎么做?見仁見智。西諺說“風(fēng)格即人(le style, cest lhomme)”,哪能一律?至于讀什么書?愛好不同,起點(diǎn)不一,豈能強(qiáng)求?與其開列一通,讓人無所適從,還不如干脆不說,以免誤人子弟。從古到今,我們從未聽說哪位是通過模仿“大師”的文章做法與熟讀他們開出的必讀書單成為作家學(xué)人的。這里似乎可以借用電視里常見的八個(gè)字:專業(yè)表演,切勿模仿。
周一良先生曾對(duì)于著名歷史學(xué)家陳寅恪先生在史學(xué)上的卓越貢獻(xiàn)作了如下的“成功學(xué)”分析:“非凡的天資,其中包括敏銳的觀察力與驚人的記憶力,是頭一條。與天資并起作用的,是陳先生博覽古今中外之書。第三條是良好的訓(xùn)練,其中包括清代樸學(xué)的基礎(chǔ),古典詩文的修養(yǎng),西方歷史語言研究方法的訓(xùn)練,各種語言文字的掌握。最后也很重要的一條是,勤奮刻苦?!边@四條,除了第一條“天資”外,貌似都可以借鑒,但真正要像陳先生這樣冠絕群倫的,必須是完全而不是部分地具備這四方面條件。周先生沒有指出的,但筆者覺得同樣重要的一條是——陳先生所處時(shí)代的學(xué)術(shù)氛圍。總之,他的成功只屬于他生活的時(shí)代與他本人的特殊性,不可復(fù)制。
誠然,學(xué)術(shù)上的成功有其巧合的機(jī)緣,工商業(yè)界的成功背后就更是一部部傳奇。成功人士本人現(xiàn)身說法甚至他人在替他作總結(jié)時(shí),往往僅留下“可以為外人道也”的部分,并對(duì)該部分極力渲染;而那些在成功路上極為關(guān)鍵的幾步,因?qū)匐y言之隱,就被過濾掉了。因此,成功之學(xué),只要是公之于眾的,就如同自傳,雖名義上是親歷親為親撰,但卻是極不可靠的。這就難怪經(jīng)濟(jì)系、商學(xué)院、工商管理學(xué)院每年都有大量一流的學(xué)生報(bào)考,他們?cè)谧x期間耳聞目睹的工商界成功人士大都并非這些院系出身。孜孜以求,結(jié)果都是掃興而歸;而無心插柳,卻柳樹成蔭。如果說實(shí)踐真能檢驗(yàn)真理的話,那么這種規(guī)律雖不能說“放之四海而皆準(zhǔn)”,但至少具有“顛撲不破”的普遍性,這值得我們深思。
目前的“成功學(xué)”,據(jù)筆者所知,僅研究成功者的案例,這種視野是極為狹隘的,因?yàn)槌晒φ叩谋澈笥星f萬的失敗者,他們也許做過跟成功者同樣的事情,但卻被當(dāng)成了墊腳石。不研究這些人,我們?cè)跄苤莱晒φ叩莫?dú)特性呢?因此唯比較才能得出較為公允的結(jié)論。此外,我們還要把“成功”放在一個(gè)較長(zhǎng)時(shí)段里去觀察,而不是把暫時(shí)的成功當(dāng)成真正的成功。畢竟,笑到最后的人,才是笑得最好的(He who laughs last laughs best)。