School of Modern Science and Technology,China Jiliang University,Hangzhou,China Email:lilywang198021@126.com

[Abstract]Currently,the study on translator models is often limited to the sinologist model and Chinese-Western joint scholar model.By getting high praise for home and abroad,Professor Tong Ming proposed diasporic translation model successfully.This paper takes the translation version of Mu Xin’s An Empty Room as an example to analyze from the linguistic perspective how the diasporic translator model can help achieve a dynamic balance between domestication and foreignization strategies in order to provide some enlightenment for“Going-out”of Chinese literature.

[Keywords]Chinese Literature;Mu Xin;Tong Ming;the Diasporic Translator Model;An Empty Room

Introduction

In the early 1980s,the“panda”series of domestic translation works have been issued to more than 150 countries and regions,which were widely welcomed and praised by foreign readers and have set up considerable influence over more than 150 countries.Over a long period of time,the successful broadcasting of Chinese literature has interested numerous people to learn more about Chinese literature.In recent years,China has spared no efforts to promote the overseas broadcasting of Chinese modern and contemporary literature to enhance the appeal and influence of Chinese culture in the world.

The Problems of Chinese Current Translational Modes and Strategies

Scholars at home and abroad generally agree that the dilemma of Chinese modern and contemporary novel translation lies mainly in the improper translation.In“A Chinese writer’s Or Service:The Translation of The Contemporary Chinese Fiction into English,”Hung Eva,a translator,stressed that“the quality of a Chinese Translation not only determines what a reader thinks of a Chinese writer,but also affects what he thinks of all Chinese modern and Contemporary literature.”(Hung,1991,p.39)

The traditional concept of translation studies believe that the biggest responsibility of a successful translator is to transfer the exact style of the writer,however,in recent years,it is believed that excellent translators should not only be faithful to the original text,but also take the acceptance of the target readers into consideration in order to achieve effective spread in overseas markets.Under such circumstances,how to choose the appropriate translation modes and strategies has undoubtedly become the theme of the current translation field.

Then what reasonable translation strategies should be adopted in the translation of Chinese modern and contemporary works?In this paper,Zhang Qian from Xi’an Foreign University analyzed two translation models proposed by Professor Hu Anjiang:Sinologist model(Hu,2010,pp.10-16)and Chinese-Western joint scholar model(Hu,2012,pp.55-61).

The typical representative of Sinologist model is Sinologist Howard Goldblatt.As we all know,in 2012,Chinese writer,Mo Yan successfully won the Nobel Prize for literature,which can also be considered as a kind of success of the translator Howard Goldblatt.Without his efforts,it is nearly impossible for Chinese writers to get widespread impact over the globe and make the Chinese modern and contemporary novels have the opportunity to“go out”,getting recognition for overseas readers and critics.However,Goldblatt’s translational works mainly based on domestication strategy give priority to the needs of target readers.Because of its non-native Chinese translator,there exist a large number of translational mistakes and even rewritten parts in the version.Goldblatt also acknowledged that unless translators“play this game with American publishers,”Chinese contemporary novels have slim chance of being published in the U.S.market.(Goldblatt,2000,p.26)

However,there are also a series of problems with the foreignization translation model.By taking the foreignization strategy,scholars represented by Yan Xianyi and Gladys are trying their best to retain the source cultural gene of text by keeping the original ways of expressions.However,there are also some problems that cannot be omitted.The original ways of expressions may seem obscure to western readers,easy to create reading frustration for them,which is obviously not conducive to the overseas promotion of Chinese fictions.

Eoyang believes that this kind of translation is not aimed at communication and is difficult to understand and readable for readers.(Eoyang,2003,p.56)Grey believed that reading such translations would“easily frustrate readers.”(Grey,2012,p.67)Jenner,when commenting on Australian scholar Mable Lee’s translation of Gao Xingjian’s Lingshan,pointed out that“there is hardly a translation that is not cumbersome.”(Jenner,2001,p.54)

The contend of domestication and foreignization in translating current novels has important guidance to the research of translation,but in the process of“going out”,more attention should be paid to the spread of Chinese culture validity,which means whether the broadcasting has realized the effective communication.(Song,2018,p.178)

In the process of translation,domestication and foreignization should not be opposed.They are only two means of effective overseas dissemination of Chinese works.They complement each other and lead to the same destination.In the English translation of Chinese literary works,foreignization should be the priority,while domestication should be the secondary.It should be readable and accepted by overseas readers,and try to keep the original essence of the original text.(Song,2018,pp.177-181)

Song proposed that translators’models and strategies should be formulated according to China's own development stage.In the period of cultural breakthrough(that is,the period that has not been widely recognized by the international community),Sinologist’s mode and domestication strategy should be the main-stream.In the cultural wrestling stage(or equal communication stage),the model of Chinese native translator with Sinologist or Chinese-American translator should be adopted to lay a foundation for the classicalization of local culture.In the stage of classicalization of Chinese literature(in which Chinese literature has been widely recognized in the world),it is necessary to adopt a translation model with local translators as the major translators,sinologists or translators should take foreignization as the main translation strategy.

The author aims to analyze the reasons why the famous translator Professor Tong Ming’s translation of Mu Xin’s collection of short storiesAn Empty Room:Stories can get high praise at home and abroad.The essay is aiming at analyzing the special translational strategy from the linguistic perspectives which achieves a kind of dynamic balance between foreignization and domestication strategies.

By making the full use of the three aspects of his outstanding strengths,namely bilingualism,literary accomplishment and translation competence,Professor Tong Ming realized a dynamic balance between domestication and foreignization,and has formed a mature translation concept featured by“different,exchangeable and transplantable and artistic”.Through the detailed analysis of the language text in the process of collision between different cultures,Tong Ming has proposed a new translational model---the diaspora translator model.By analyzing his skillful translation examples in detail,it is not hard for us to realize the advantages of the brand-new translational model----the diasporic translator’s familiarity with both Chinese and foreign cultures.

a Successful Translational Mode---A Case Study of An Empty Room

An Empty Room:Stories,a collection of short stories written by Mu Xin in 2011 was published by New Direction,a famous American literary publishing press and was nominated for the Pushcart literature prize.Overseas professional literary Review agencies speak highly of it,such as Publishers weekly,The Asian Review of Books,Publisher weekly and so on.

Mu Xin is a successful writer who can be called scholar of both Chinese and Western cultures,and is also a contemporary avant-garde,whose writing is refined and graceful,inheriting the language charm of a long history of Chinese.“Mu Xin's Chinese style is similar with the classical style such asThe Book of Songs,and well versed in the rhythm of prose novels of the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Republic of China.”(Tong,2011,p.23)

An Introduction to the Diasporic Translator Model

Professor Tong Ming first mentioned the term“Diaspora”in his famous paper,The Homeland Translation:The Perspective of Diaspora in the Post Era.Diaspora is an ancient English word of Greek origin that has emerged in the post-colonial and globalization context.Since the 1970s,the term marked the emergence of a new cultural perspective.According to Tong Ming,“l(fā)iterary and cultural scholars can use the term to refer to the cultural phenomenon beyond the category of a single nation in the post-colonial era,as well as the changes in aesthetic and cultural judgments caused thereby.”(Tong,2005,p.151)

Contemporarily,this term includes cross-cultural culture,translation and integration.For this reason,diasporic perspective often contains cross-cultural and cross-national characteristics.“It is often used to challenge some national cultural boundaries for the purpose of assimilation consciousness.”(Tong,2005,p.152)The concept of home from the perspective has become larger,and it is no longer the actual geographical home,but the root of the home and state in the heart.

The diasporic translators reproduce the home in the heart through the formation of cross-nationality and cultural translation.(Tong,2005,p.160)cultural translation itself is dependent on the two kinds of cultural interaction,the diasporic translator is the carrier of this kind of interaction,while the translation is no longer just the simple translation,but serves as the carrier of home root culture and history,combined with the culture of the target language interpretation of a kind of reconstruction of literature and art.

Then from the diasporic perspective,what kind of translation strategies should be adopted to better spread the cultural essence of Chinese contemporary novels? Professor Tong Ming believes that both of domestication strategy and foreignization strategies are not reliable.In the English translation practices of Chinese contemporary novels,translators should not be forced to assimilate and give up showing their own cultural differences just because overseas readers think their cultures are too foreign and hard to understand.On the other hand,translators should not be limited to their own culture and give up participating in cross-cultural and cross-cultural cultural exchanges.Because“if you can’t participate in cross-cultural and cross-ethnic activities or exchanges,you can’t reflect or fully show your own ethnic cultural differences,so as to realize the propagation of native culture in the foreign countries.Therefore,as a diasporic translator,the most important task is to“re-create the homeland from the starting point of mixing several cultures”.(Tong,2005,p.161)

The Interpretation of the Four-dimensional Translational View

The author will try to analyze the translation examples in Professor Tong Ming’s translation of An Empty Room,and illustrate his four-dimensional translation view based on the perspective of diasporic culture.Tong Ming,a tenured professor of English at California state university,used to be one of UN headquarters senior translators.He is an authority of Chinese literature and foreign literature,and has formed a mature view of translation because of his longterm experience in translation practices.Tong Ming incisively summed up his four-dimensional translational view as four Homophones of“Yi”in Chinese,which mean“different,exchangeable and transplantable and artistic”respectively.(Tong,2013,p.119)

Tong Ming mentioned,“The so-called translatability means being different,exchangeable and transplantable and artistic.In the final analysis,translatability is also a skill.Art is the fourth dimension in translation.”(Tong,2013,p.119)That is to say,“異”,“易”and“移”are three different processing techniques in translation,the ultimate ideal of which is to achieve the effect of“藝”.

Based on Mr.Tong Ming's four-dimensional translational view,the author tries to analyze,from the linguistic perspective,how professor Tong Ming’s translation of Mu Xin’s novels can achieve a dynamic balance between domestication and foreignization by adopting flexible translation techniques.

The interpretation of“異”

The author believes that there are two ways to interpret the“difference”in Tong Ming’s four-dimensional translation view.The first is that the translator needs to thoroughly understand the differences between English and Chinese expressions before adopting reasonable and flexible responses in the translation process,such as adding notes or omitting some contents.Secondly,translators should be brave to show the differences between the original culture and the target culture,so as to realize the effective propagation of native culture in other countries.

The two interpretations of“different”involve two different translation strategies of domestication and foreignization.The first“different”flexible translation is subordinate to the domestication strategy,which makes the original text more readable through reasonable addition or omission.The second“different”strategy,on the contrary,is the foreignization strategy,which aims to retain the original charm of the original text and give readers a sense of foreignness and freshness.

Example 1：I found his words quite noble and praised him.“I may have taught you piano but I could never have taught you this lesson.You’re obviously your own teacher—and no nightingale from the nineteenth century.”(Mu,2011,p.35)

Here is an excerpt from the short story Fang Fang No.4 in The Empty Room.The translator takes full account of the differences in expression between English and Chinese.Secondly,most Chinese sentences have no subjects,while English sentences must have subjects.The translator should pay attention to adding personal pronouns“I”and“you”in translation,and adding possessive pronoun“your”in the expression of“無(wú)師自通”,which undoubtedly makes the writing more consistent with English writing customs.This is the first“different”.

It is worth noting that in the translation of The Empty Room,the translator not only pays attention to the conjunctions and pronouns which are easy to be missed when translating from Chinese to English,but also makes up the unsaid words implied by the author according to the actual situation.

Example 2：Mountain dwellers call azaleas“red reflections of the mountains.”Azaleas—mostly red ones,some white—were in full bloom.(Mu,2011,p.11)

This sentence is short,but the translator in which shows the dual“difference”technique.First of all,in the sentence“山里叫做映山紅”,the author fully consider the different expressions between English and Chinese to translate“山里”into“Mountain dwellers”which refer people who live in the mountains.Secondly,another“difference”is based on foreignization strategy to translate“山里紅”literally as“red reflections of the mountains ”to retain the exotic flavor of the original expression.

The interpretation of“易”

Example 3:As far as I could explain then,shu-tou was the written penance sent to the dead ancestors“by water route and by land route”…as if it were a grand drama acted out in sequential segments with monks reciting the scriptures and kowtowing on the grand.(Mu,2011;p.4)

The translation here is based on the domestication strategy,using the translation technique of“易”,creatively combined with the text,the translator explains the“書(shū)面總結(jié)”into“the written penance”which can be understood by the West readers.Furthermore,“連本大戲”was translated as“a grand drama”.“水陸道場(chǎng)”was translated into“by water route and by land route,the entire rite”.The series of organic combination of foreignization and domestication translation strategy of“異”and“易”,enables“the translator maximally keep the source language culture and help target readers comprehend.”(Lu,2014,p.78)

Example 4：I waved a“No thanks”……I felt a pang of regret.I didn’t think it would take so long.(Mu,2011,p.11)

This example shows a good grasp of both languages.Replacing the eastern gesture“搖搖手”with western gesture“waved‘No thanks’”will undoubtedly make the translated version seem more spontaneous and acceptable.

The interpretation of“移”

Example 5：She looked more like,well,a flower.Sister and I made faces behind her back,and called her“a social flower”,knowing it wasn’t very nice of us to say that.(Mu,2011,p.16)

Like the previous example,this paragraph is also a combination of multiple translation techniques,which involve“different”,“exchangeable”and“transplantable”.First of all,the translator fully considered the differences between English and Chinese expressions to omit the“"mother”part,and adopted the expression mode of“more like”and the image of“flower”in the source language to emphasize the characteristics of Ms.Xia Mingzhu as“flower”.

In translating“交際花”,the translator can directly use an authentic expression in target language as“social butterfly”,but gave up the“exchangeable”choice to use the above-mentioned“flower”image.Combined with the translation of“a social flower”,it is not difficult to understand for the target readers to realize the connotation and also achieve the effective transplantation of the original image in the target language.

The interpretation of“藝”

as for the fourth dimension of translation“art”,it can be called the transformation of translation,and“the real challenge for a translator doesn't lie in his ability to deal with the difficulties that others can find out,but in his ability to do the transformation that others usually cannot.The real difficulty lies in how he seeks the same essence from the different languages,achieves the cultural equivalences in the exchangeable and transplantable process to achieve the ultimate artistic effects.What the translator really knows can never be showed directly but only conveyed to the readers.”(Tong,2013,p.11)

Example 6：Spring doesn’t arrive so easily.Spring is like a melancholy yet dignified man.(Mu,2011,p.99)

In accordance with the rhythm of English meaning group,the translated version can be divided into Spring/does not arrive/so easily./and Spring/is like/a dignified/yet dignified/man,which not only completes the syntax neatly,but also artistically forms the rhythm equally.Even Mr.Tong Ming couldn't help feeling that he was so lucky to get such an artistic translation that perfectly matched the original text.Furthermore,it is so hard to achieve the rhythm of the whole text,and it is often necessary to change the manuscripts for many times.

Through the above-mentioned examples,it is not hard for us to realize“creation is the father,translation is motherhood”,which was pointed out by the author when he read final translational version given by Tong Ming.Since maternal characteristics lie in the infinite patience,excellent translators need to have unlimited patience to handled carefully each sentence in translation practices so as to understand the author original intention and achieve ultimate faithfulness in translation by adopting reasonable translation strategies and techniques.As a good translator,there is no other choice but to continuously deepen his literary and artistic accomplishment so as to have more chances to get inspirations in his translations.

Conclusion

Through the detailed analyses of the above-mentioned translation practices,the readers can fully understand that in the process of Chinese modern and contemporary novel translation,how much contributions have been done by the translator Tong Ming to adjust measures dynamically and flexibly to accord with various conditions in order to make the translation not only fully demonstrate the essences of Chinese culture,but also effectively smooth the reading experiences of the western readers.Only by adhering to this kind of flexible and effective translation modes and strategies can Chinese culture have chances to enhance its cultural influence overseas and let more and more Western readers learn to understand and appreciate the essences of Chinese culture.

Acknowledgements

This paper is one of the research results of the general research project of 2019 Zhejiang Provincial Department of Education“The Translator Models and Strategies of Chinese Contemporary Novels”(Project No.Y201942290).