Liu Huo＊

Sichuan Literature and Art Critics Association

Abstract: During the Tang Dynasty, the land of Shu was composed of the Ba and Shu areas, which were adjacent to present-day Hanzhong city of Shaanxi province to the north, northern Yunnan province to the south,Wushan county of Chongqing to the east, and Xichang city of Sichuan province to the west.In the nearly 300 years of rule under the dynasty,a number of poets, whether they were born or just worked and lived there for a short period of time, wrote many immortal poems, which constitute an integral part of Tang poetry.They range from Chen Zi’ang and Wang Bo of the early Tang to Li Shangyin, Wen Tingyun, and Wei Zhuang of the late Tang.The land of Shu is, therefore, the witness of the rise and fall of Tang poetry.

Keywords: the land of Shu, Tang poetry, rise and fall

The discovery and research of the Sanxingdui Ruins and the Jinsha Site demonstrate that the myths and legends passed down for generations locally are actually well-grounded on brilliant civilizations that existed in the Ba and Shu areas (Sichuan Basin and surrounding mountain ranges) hundreds of years ago.With further excavation and studies on the Sanxingdui Ruins and the Jinsha Site, the Ba and Shu civilizations have become one of the three key birthplaces of the Chinese civilization, with their importance the same as the other two—the Yellow River civilization and the Yangtze River civilization.The land of Shu from the Qin to the Sui dynasties was described in detail inHuayang Guo Zhi[The Chronicles of Huayang] in its volumes, including “Ba zhi” [Records of Ba], “Hanzhong zhi” [Records of Hanzhong], “Shu zhi” [Records of Shu], and “Nanzhong zhi” [Records of Nanzhong] (Chang,2010).Except for “Records of Nanzhong,” the areas covered by the other three records are roughly the same as the areas under the jurisdiction of Sichuan province set up in the Yuan Dynasty.During the Shu Han period (221–263), the state established by Liu Bei and his son constituted one of the tripartite divisions of China with the other two states—Wei in the Central Plains and Wu in Jiangnan (regions south of the Yangtze River).The land of Shu in the Tang Dynasty covered nearly the whole area of southwestern China, including Jiannan Dao (Jiannan province, which consisted of Xichuan [western Sichuan] and Dongchuan [eastern Sichuan]), reaching present-day Wudu county of Gansu province to the north, and Gejiu city of Yunnan province to the south, Wushan county of Chongqing to the east,and Xichang city of Sichuan province to the west.In the late Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, two kingdoms were established there and later referred to as Former Shu(907–925) and Later Shu (934–966), respectively.

Gao Bing (1350–1423), a poetry anthologist and writer of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644),created a literary review work titledTangshi Pinhui[The Graded Compendium of Tang Poetry],the first book that had the largest collection of Tang poems among such books.In the preface to the book, Gao (1982) divided the history of Tang poetry into four periods: Early Tang (618–712, i.e.,from the establishment of the dynasty to Emperor Xuanzong’s reign), Golden Age of Tang (712–762, from the Kaiyuan year of Emperor Xuanzong’s reign to the beginning of Emperor Daizong’s reign), Middle Tang (762–859, from the beginning of Emperor Daizong’s reign to Emperor Xuanzong’s reign), and Late Tang (859–907, from Emperor Yizong’s reign to the end of the Tang Dynasty).By this kind of division and a thorough check ofQuan Tang Shi[Complete Tang Poems] compiled by scholars of the Qing Dynasty, it can be seen that the emergence and the end of Tang poetry were highly relevant to the land of Shu.Or, considering from the entries of Wang Bo and Chen Zi’ang into Shu to the entries of other poets, such as Li Shangyin, Wen Tingyun,Wei Zhuang, and Zheng Gu in the late Tang, we can conclude that Tang poetry both emerged and ended in the land of Shu.

Early Tang: Represented by Chen Zi’ang, Wang Bo, and Lv Qiujun

Chen Zi’ang (659–700), a native of Shu, was considered the poet who had initiated the innovation of poetry and created the Tang style, which was totally different from the poetry of the Six Dynasties prevalent at his time.His contribution was praised as, “He completely subdued the waves of decadence.All under heaven, without exception, underwent a change in content and pattern [in literature].” Another evidence for the initial relevance between Shu and Tang poetry may lie in the fact that Wang Bo (650?–676), the talented young poet recognized as one of the Four Paragons of the Early Tang, once visited the land of Shu.

Jiu Tang Shu[The Old Book of Tang] andXin Tang Shu[The New Book of Tang] both include a biography of Wang Bo, but they do not mention his entry into Shu (Liu, 1975; Ouyang, 1975).Tang Caizi Zhuan[Biographies of Eminent Tang Poets], which was written by Xin Wenfang of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) in the early 14th century, also does not contain relevant statements (Xin, 2019).Despite this, Wang’s footprints in Shu were well recorded in some of his extant 89 poems.For instance,inJiangting Yeyue Songbie Ershou[Parting by Moonlight in a River Pavilion], he wrote: “The stream from southern Ba runs into the Yangtze River.The mountain range blocks the cloud from the north of the Great Wall.On an autumn night with chilly moonlight over the quay; Who sees us weeping as we say farewell?” The “southern Ba” mentioned in the poem is present-day Banan district of Chongqing.During the Tang Dynasty, Banan was under the jurisdiction of the Yu prefecture of Jiannan Dao (literally meaning circuit, roughly equivalent to the present administrative level of a province).We cannot find any information in the official records about Wang Bo’s life after he arrived in Shu, like whether he was dispatched there and assigned to an official position or who supported his living there.But we can see from the above poem that he did not mention any poor or difficult situation for living.It is described inBiographies of Eminent Tang Poetsthat“Wang Bo’s writing was so brilliant that he was often commissioned by people to write articles or poems for them.Therefore, there were piles of gold, cloth, and silk in his home.He could get enough food and clothing just by writing.” (Xin, 2019).If the description was true indeed, then no matter where he was, he could always depend on his ink brush to live comfortably.Jiangting Yeyue Songbie Ershou[Parting by Moonlight in a River Pavilion II] reads: “The drifting mist is shrouding the green stone steps; The moon is flying to the southern sky.My loneliness is hidden in the empty pavilion; It’s so cold by the mountain and the river in the night.” According to this poem, although Wang Bo felt lonely by himself in Shu, he was not living in a miserable situation.Despite “the drifting mist” and “cold … in the night,” he still had his longings and expectations.In theShuzhong Jiuri[The Ninth Day in Shu], he wrote: “On September 9th, at Wangxiangtai; I raised my cup to see off my guest in a place not my home.I’m tired of living lonely in the south;As I bitterly see swan geese flying from the north.” Wang Bo died in his twenties.During his short life, he had to leave his home and take up government employment unwillingly.Wherever he travelled, he wrote many unrivalled poems, such asTengwang Ge Xu[Preface to the Prince Teng's Pavilion], andThe Ninth Day in Shu, which remain famous to the present day.Wang Bo also wrote about the land of Shu in prose.The Volumes 183 to 185 ofQuan Tang Wen[Complete Prose Literature of the Tang Dynasty] include many tablet inscriptions written by Wang Bo about the land of Shu, such asEpigraph on Jinghui Temple of Wudu Mountain in Mianzhu County of Yi Prefecture,Epigraph on Shanji Temple in Deyang County of Yi Prefecture,Epigraph on Huiyi Temple in Zi Prefecture,Epigraph on Baihe Temple in Feiwu County of Zi Prefecture,Epigraph on Huipu Temple in Tongquan County of Zi Prefecture,Epigraph on Fuhui Temple in Yuanwu County of Zi Prefecture, andEpigraph on Longhuai Temple in Jiulong County of Peng Prefecture.Among them,Epigraph on the Temple of Confucius in Yi Prefectureis the representative work.Although it is not on a par with thePreface to the Prince Teng’s Pavilionin terms of popularity or influence, its aspirational and elegant style is similar to that of the latter.With a bold guess, we suppose that theEpigraph on the Temple of Confucius in Yi Prefecturemay be the earliest eulogy to Confucius in the land of Shu.

Chen Zi’ang was acclaimed as the progenitor of Tang poetry by Fang Hui (1227–1305) of the Yuan Dynasty in hisYingkui Lvsui[The Quintessence of Regulated Verse from Ying Isle and Kui Constellation].Chen’s poems－Deng Youzhoutai Ge[A Song on My Ascending to the Youzhou Terrace], and a collection of 38 poems titledGanyu[Moved by My Encountering], were praised by Fang as “l(fā)ofty and concise; forceful and desolate.” Chen is regarded as one of the outstanding Tang poets, and his poems are considered to represent the highest level at the inception of Tang poetry.Nearly 140 poems of Chen are extant nowadays.Although most of them were written after he left Shu, poems on his days in the area or his nostalgia for it are representative of his style.Suizhou Nanjiang Biexiang Qu Guren[Singing Goodbye to My Old Friend by the Riverside in Sui prefecture] depicts the scene in which his fellow held a farewell dinner for his leaving.The poem reads, “By the Chu River, I’m going somewhere far away again; The sailing boats are becoming farther and farther.My old friend comes to see me off; He has arranged a farewell dinner on the southern isle.What should I regret in my life? I regret that I couldn’t retreat to a forest and mountain.Now I have to leave my hometown and mountain again.Let me sing a song to express my sorrow.” Although it is also a poem on parting, it is quite distinct from poems with the same theme written in the Six Dynasties.Upon his leaving the land of Shu, he wrote, “The Wu Gorge is getting out of my sight; I still search for it as I walk down the Zhanghua Pavilion.As the boat passes through mountains and rivers of the ancient Ba state; I behold the Jingmen Mountain amid a mist.Towns can be seen beyond vast fields and land; Woods are blocked by piles of clouds.A traveller sings so wildly as I am.Who knows that he would come to the Chu area?” (Du Jingmen Wang Chu[Crossing Jingmen, Gazing Toward Chu]).Chen’s feelings, emotions, and impassioned character are fully reflected in this poem.InGanyu XXXVI, he wrote, “What do we admire and miss? Mount Emei in Shu it is.I want to travel with that mad man of Chu; Hoping to meet him over the clouds...” Lu Cangyong, a man of the same dynasty, spoke highly of his poems as, “He rose from the regions of the Yangtze and Hanshui Rivers (eastern Sichuan Province).Like a tiger,he gloated over the whole Xia (i.e., the Tang Empire).He stood out through a thousand antiquities.He completely subdued the waves of decadence.All under heaven, without exception, underwent a change in content and pattern” (Tang Youshiyi Chen Zi’ang Wenji Xu[Preface to the Works of Chen Zi’ang, Right Reminder of the Tang Dynasty]).

Lv Qiujun (?–709?), a native of Shu, is also worth mentioning here.In the Biography of Lv Qiujun attached to the Biography of Chen Zi’ang in theOld Book of Tang, it was recorded that“After Chen Zi’ang died, there was a man from Chengdu (Yi prefecture) who was also famous for writing poems and prose.In the Jinglong year of Emperor Zhongzong, he was recommended by Princess Anle, so that he rose to the official position of Taichang Boshi [Chamberlain forCeremonials].When the princess was punished, he was demoted to be a granary keeper in the Xun prefecture.Later he died in his term of office.His works have ten volumes.” This introduction shows that Lv was a person with a literary reputation during his time.It is a pity that only one of his poems was collected in theComplete Tang Poems.TitledLinshui Ting[Waterside Pavilion], the poem was inscribed on a stone tablet that still stands by Lake Erhai of Yunnan.It was written in Yunnan when he acted as a secretary and record keeper.The poem has such lines as, “The scenery is as beautiful as in Cangzhou; And as vivid as the youth.When we meet in our best days; Let us not mourn over our aging years.” Although only one of his poems is extant,10 of his prose compositions were kept in Volume 297 ofComplete Prose Literature of the Tang Dynasty.Among others, those related to Shu includeCongratulation on Pardoning the Governor of Yi Prefecture,A Petition of the Folks of Yi Prefecture for Keeping Prince of Boling,A Petition of the Folks of Yi Prefecture for Keeping Sima [major] Deng Weizhen, A Petition of the Folks of Yi Prefecture for Keeping Sima [major] Shi, andA Statement on the Eighth Incoming Mica Powder for the Governor of Shu Prefecture.

Golden Age of the Tang Dynasty: Represented by Li Bai, Du Fu, and Wang Wei

According to the evaluation system of China’s history of poetry in modern times, the poems of Li Bai (701–762), Du Fu (712–770), and Bai Juyi represent the highest achievements of Tang poetry.Before the Ming Dynasty, however, Li Bai, Du Fu, and Wang Wei (701–761) were already considered exemplary representatives of Tang poetry.They were acclaimed respectively as“Immortal of Poetry,” “Sage of Poetry,” and “Buddha of Poetry.”

Complete Tang Poemshas 996 poems written by Li Bai.The imageries in these poems are so diversified that they range from blossoms to wine, from folk life to the imperial court, from ordinary people to immortals, from cockfight to sword-wielding, from the earth to the universe,from retreat to engagement, and from being ambitious to being depressed.Throughout his life, Li Bai travelled across the country and wrote what he saw and felt from the bottom of his heart.Some of his poems may not be as fabulous as his more famous ones.But those related to the land of Shu, though not many in quantity, are all very popular.For instance, the grand and magnificentShudao Nan[Hard is the Road to Shu] reads, “Oho! Behold! How steep! How high!The road to Shu is harder than to climb the sky.Since the two pioneers put the kingdom in order,Have passed forty-eight thousand years, And few have tried to pass its border.” The elegant and beautifulEmeishan Yuege[The Moon over Mount Brow] reads, “The crescent moon looks like old Autumn’s golden brow; Its deep reflection flows with limpid water blue.I’ll leave the town on Clear Stream for three canyons now.O Moon, how I miss you when you are out of view!”The carefree and unrestrainedZao Fa Baidicheng[Leaving the White Emperor Town at Dawn]reads, “Leaving at dawn the White Emperor crowned with cloud, I’ve sailed a thousand miles through canyons in a day.With monkeys’ sad adieus, the riverbanks are loud; My skiff hasleft ten thousand mountains far away.” The heroic and optimisticWang Tianmenshan[Mount Heaven’s Gate Viewed from Afar] reads, “Breaking Mount Heaven’s Gate, the great River rolls through; Green billows eastward flow and here turn to the north.From both sides of the River thrust out the cliffs blue; Leaving the sun behind, a lonely sail comes forth.” All such poems show the importance of Shu to the poet.To put it in another way, they express his affection toward his hometown.

The An Lushan Rebellion (or An-Shi Rebellion [755—763]) was a milestone in the history of the Tang Dynasty, marking the change from the Golden Age of Tang to the Middle Tang.In the winter of the second year of Qianyuan (759), when the political situation was still unstable,Du Fu, a native of Henan, came into Shu by land from Tonggu (present-day Chengxian county of Gansu province).In the third year of Dali (768), he left this area by taking a boat from Kuizhou and going through the Three Gorges.Totally, he led an itinerant life in this area for nearly a decade.According to the studies of some scholars, during the ten years, Du Fu wrote about 470 poems in the land of Shu, including Chengdu, present-day Santai, Langzhong, Le Shan, Yibin, and some other places, and about 400 poems in the Ba area, including Chongqing,Zhongxian, Yunyang, and Fengjie, and some other counties.Complete Tang Poemshas 1,451 poems written by Du Fu.This means that he wrote two-thirds of his poems in the Ba and Shu areas, and most of them are known worldwide.For instance, he wrote in Shu such famous works asShu Xiang[Temple of the premier of Shu],Ke Zhi[For A Guest], andMaowu Wei Qiufeng Suopo Ge[My Cottage Unroofed by Autumn Gales].He wrote in Fengjie of the Ba area such popular works asQiuxing Bashou[Ode to Autumn (eight poems)],Bazhen Tu[The Stone Fortress], andDeng Gao[On the Height].For Du Fu’s poems written in Shu, the ballad style ofMy Cottage Unroofed by Autumn Galesexpresses further and more deeply his empathy and compassion for the poor people of his period whileOde to Autumnstands for the highest and unparalleled achievements of regulated verses.No wonder Du Fu expressed proudly inQianmen Xicheng Lu Shijiu Caozhang[Getting Rid of the Blues, Playfully Shown to Sergeant Major Lu] that, “In my late years, I gradually get more precise with poetry’s rules,” and inYonghuai Guji[Singing My Feelings on Traces of the Past I] that, “In twilight years, his poems andfustirred the River Pass.” It can be said that his ten years of life in the Ba and Shu areas enabled him to make such accomplishments which played a vital role in Tang poetry.

As for Wang Wei, Tang Lin, an art historian, explained roughly Wang’s travelling routes in Shu with his study of Wang’s paintings about plank roads on Shu mountains.In fact, even without such paintings, we can still conclude that Wang had a close link to this area.This is because he wrote many poems with the theme of seeing off his friends who left for Shu,includingSong Yan Xiucai Huan Shu[Seeing off Scholar Yan on His Return to Shu],Song Cui Jiu Xingzong You Shu[Seeing off Cui Xingzong on His Visit to Shu], andSong Wang Zunshi Gui Shu Zhong Baisao[Seeing off Venerable Master Wang on His Return to Shu to Sweep His Family Tombs].InSeeing off Scholar Yan on His Return to Shu, the line, “Theroad you take in parting will pass through Flower County; In returning home, you’ll enter Brocade City.” This shows the poet’s familiarity with the city of Chengdu.His knowledge of culture, geography, and allusions to this area is also manifested in the use of “Brocade Washing” and “Cyan Rooster” inSeeing off Venerable Master Wang on His Return to Shu to Sweep His Family Tombs, which reads, “A Transcendent from the Grand Veil Heaven: Spring among the willows at Brocade Washing River.You have not been named emissary in search of the Cyan Rooster; But will only have the white crane report to the people of your town.”Wang Wei was proficient in Sanskrit and excelled in music.His five-character regular verses,especially five-character quatrains, are considered superior in such verses of Tang poetry for their implication and fun.Speaking of Wang Wei, his good friend Yuan Xian, a native of Shu, must be mentioned.Born in Chengdu, Yuan could write and chant in Sanskrit.He wrote: “The lotus-flower Sanskrit letters came originally from Heaven; And you, a Director in State Affairs, awakened to meditation early on.When three dots form the letter ‘i’, then there are things to ponder; With one glance, all becomes illusion－one forgets the fish-trap.”(Chou Wang Wei[Answering Wang Wei]).

The openness of Shu and the sociability of the Shu people reflected the inclusiveness and the boldness of the vision of the Tang Dynasty.

During the Golden Age period of the dynasty, or at the turn of the transition to the middle period, a few poets were also related to the land of Shu.For instance, Cen Shen (715–770) had a key role in frontier-style poetry and was a close friend of Du Fu.Like Du Fu, he also went to Shu.But unlike Du, who had to depend on others for a living, he came to take the post of the governor of Jia prefecture.He wrote many poems on the Shu culture when he lived there.For instance, “The first emperor of Shu and Marquis Wu; Met each other in the age of turbulence.” (Xianzhu Wuhou Miao[The Temple of the First Emperor of Shu and Marquis Wu]); “Master Wen was not here anymore; The Shu people are left with an empty classroom.” (Wengong Jiangtang[Master Wen’s Classroom]); “I feel sad to visit Yang Xiong’s former residence; As it looks lonely without the trace of any person.” (Yang Xiong Caoxuan Tai[Yang Xiong’s Caoxuan Terrace]); and “Xiangru’s zither terrace is age-old; The owner has gone, and the terrace looks empty.” (Sima Xiangru Qintai[Sima Xiangru’s Zither Terrace]).According to Xin (2019), Cen Shen’s frontier-style poems feature“courage under adversity” as reflected inBaixue Ge Song Wu Panguan Guijing[Song of White Snow in Farewell to Secretary Wu Going Back to the Capital], which reads, “Snapping the pallid grass, the northern wind whirls low; In the eighth moon the Tartar sky is filled with snow.As if the vernal breeze had come back overnight, adorning thousands of pear trees with blossoms white.” For this feature, Du Fu praised the fact that “Cen Shen creates many new poems” inJi Cen Jiazhou[Sent to Cen of Jiazhou].

Li Qi (690?–751?), a native of Shu (born in present-day Santai county), was a famous scholar in the Golden Age of Tang.His seven-character-regulated verses and frontier-style poems were as good as his peers.His frontier-style poems include, “There is no town for miles and milesbut tents in rows; Beyond the desert, there’s nothing but rain and snow.The wild geese honk from night to night, that’s all we hear; We see but Tartar soldiers shedding tear on tear.” (Gu Congjun Xing[Army Life]; “She seems to be fluting, even now, a reed-song of home; Filling every soldier’s eyes with homesick tears.” (Gu Yi[An Old Air]).His seven-character regulated verses include: “By the window, green bamboo grows from empty land; Outside the door, the verdant mountain looks the same as before.” (Ti Lu Wu Jiuju[Written on the Former Residence of Lu], and “Wielding aruyiscepter as flowers fall from Heaven; Resting in an unoccupied house amidst dense spring grass.” (Ti Xuangongshan Chi[Written on the Pond in Xuangong Mountain]).Li Qi had a wide circle of acquaintances.He made friends with many influential poets of that time, such as Wang Wei, Gao Shi, and Wang Changling, and echoed each other with poems.Li’s style of regulated verses had a great influence on later generations.Shen Deqian, a scholar of the Qing Dynasty, compiledTangshi Biecai[Anthology of Tang Poems],which has the comment that “Though Li Qi’s seven-character regulated verses cannot rival those of Du Fu and Wang Wei, they were in compliance with the rules and forms of classical poetic composition.” He also mentioned that Li’s poems “were regarded by sons of Emperor Jiajing and Emperor Longqing of the Ming Dynasty as a yardstick.” Who else in the world can have his works treated as a yardstick?

Around the period when the An Lushan Rebellion took place, Gao Shi and Yan Wu were assigned several times to Shu to act as commanders of border provinces.During the Tang Dynasty, poems acted as a special carrier.They were like a symbol, an official certificate, or a recommendation letter.TheComplete Tang Poemshas many poems of Tang emperors with a family name of Li, including 99 poems of Emperor Taizong and 60 poems of Emperor Xuanzong,as well as 47 poems of Wu Zetian, the empress regnant of the Wu Zhou dynasty, an interregnum of the Tang Dynasty.Gao and Yan governed areas where people lived on graziery.They were good friends of Du Fu and wrote brilliant poems as well.For instance, Gao Shi createdRenri Ji Du Er Shiyi[Sending a Poem to Du Fu on the Human Day], which reads, “I sent a poem to the thatched cottage on the Human Day; As I felt pity for my old friend who must be missing his hometown.I can’t bear to see willow twigs budding beautifully; The sight of branches of plum blossoms also makes me heartbroken.As I’m now in the remote southern area I cannot participate in any important political affairs; I’m full of concerns and worries.We miss each other and recall the past days on this Human Day; We have no idea where we would be on the same day next year.Be unsuccessful and retreating for three decades; How could I know that I end up becoming a frustrated official at such an old age.As a doddering governor, I feel ashamed that I could do nothing for you, my wandering friend.” Yan Wu wroteBaling Da Du Er jianyi[A Rely to Du Fu from Baling to Express My Sentiment of Missing], which reads, “When I see the moonset on my bed in the Ba mountain; I miss you thousandliaway from here.The poet joined the infantry for wine; The consultant of Imperial Kitchen was also good at writing poems.At the river head,maple leaves arouse nostalgia in the traveller; The yellow chrysanthemums outside the fence arereminding me of whom? I often stand on my toes to look for you; Wailing gibbons and wild geese can’t express my sorrow.”

Tang poetry reached the acme of perfection in the Golden Age of Tang.During this period,Li Bai, Du Fu, Wang Wei, and other important poets came to Shu and wrote many well-known poems about this area, making this period the unrivaled highlight in Chinese history of literature and poetry.

Middle Tang: Represented by Bai Juyi, Yuan Zhen, and Xue Tao

After the Golden Age of Tang with Li Bai and Du Fu as the most outstanding poets in ancient Chinese poetry, Tang poetry went into a dormant state for a short while.Bai Juyi (772–846) even took this phase as “the collapse of the way of poetry” (Yu Yuan Jiu Shu[Letter to Yuan Zhen]).However, Tang poetry took on a completely new look after Yuan Zhen and Bai Juyi developed their popular and vivid poetic style, which was referred to as the “Yuan-Bai style” by Chen Yinke.The emergence of Yuan Zhen (779–831), Bai Juyi, and Liu Yuxi (772–842) glorified Tang poetry again.It is interesting that the three poets all had close ties with the Ba and Shu areas.Yuan Zhen came to Luzhou, Dongchuan of Jiannan in the capacity of a supervising censor to investigate a corruption case.Bai Juyi once served as the governor of Zhongzhou (Zhong prefecture, which is present-day Zhongxian county of Chongqing).Liu Yuxi once acted as the governor of Kuizhou(Kui prefecture, which is present-day Fengjie county of Chongqing).

In the spring of the 14th year of Yuanhe (819) (or the winter of 818, according to some records), Bai Juyi arrived in Zhongzhou by crossing the Wu Gorge along the Shu River.On his way to Shu, he wrote many poems, such asZi Jiangzhou Sima Shou Zhongzhou Cishi Yanghe Shengze Liaoshu Bicheng[Transferred from Sima of Jiangzhou to Governor of Zhongzhou,Writing to Express My Gratitude and Loyalty to the Emperor],Jiangzhou Fu Zhongzhou Zi Jiangling Yilai Zhouzhong Shi Shedi Wushi Yun[Travelling from Jiangzhou to Zhongzhou and Boarding a Boat in Jiangling to Show My Younger Brother Fifty Lines of Verse],Yeru Qutangxia[Entering the Qutang Gorge in the Night], andTi Xiazhong Shishang[Writing on a Stone in the Gorge].All such poems showed his favor and longing for the land of Shu, at least a sentiment not as miserable and desolate as what he had felt after his demotion toSimaof Jiangzhou.Bai was the Tang poet with the largest number of poems (2,848) collected inComplete Tang Poems.During the nearly one and a half years (22 months according to some records) in Zhongzhou, he wrote approximately 120 poems, fewer than what he had created in Jiangzhou (288 poems).Although none of the poems he wrote in Zhongzhou were as great as his magnum opus, “Pipa Xing” [Song of the Pipa], many of them depict lychee vividly.For instance,Ti Junzhong Lizhi Shi Shiba Yun,Jianji Wanzhou Yang Ba Shijun[Writing 18 Lines of Verse on Lychee in the prefecture and Sent to Governor Yang of Wan prefecture], andChongji Lizhi Yu Yang Shijun, Shiwen Yang Shijun Yu Zhongzhi Guyou Luoju Zhixi[Sending Again Lychee to Governor Yang as I Hear He Is Going toPlant Such Trees, So I Teased Him in the Final Couplet].These poems made the lychee growing along the rivers in Shu become widely known.His description of lychee as, “You are as lovely as red pearls; That is why the white-beard old governor is also so fond of you.Who will be here when you bear fruit ten years later; Despite the fact, I still grow you in the courtyard.” (Zhong Lizhi[Planting Lychee]) is taken as a classical image of the fruit.

As for Yuan Zhen, he passed the imperial examination in the same year as Bai Juyi.After he entered Shu, he had some romantic experiences.In the spring of the fourth year of Yuanhe (809),he was assigned to Dongchuan of Jiannan as the newly appointed supervising censor.Soon after he arrived in the area, he wrote 19 poems as a series titledShi Dongchuan[To Go to Dongchuan].One of them reads, “I eat cold food for many years as the weather is so fine; It is also convenient and easy to get for trips.I arrive at the Han River on the Qingming Day; A country magistrate rode a horse to welcome me.” This shows how high his spirit was after he had been offered an official position for the first time.It is quite possible that the widely eulogized lines, “Having crossed the vast oceans, I can no longer take a river seriously.If it’s not on Mount Wushan, it’s not a cloud.I don’t care to look back on my leisurely walks among the flowers and shrubs, half due to religious devotion, and half due to you.” (Li Si[On Parting IV]) was written after he was in Shu.Certainly, his romance here was vividly reflected in his poemJizeng Xue Tao[To Xue Tao],which reads, “By the beautiful Brocade River and Emei Mountain; Appear two talented ladies as Wenjun and Xue Tao.Their speech is as eloquent as the glib parrot’s tongue; their proses are as splendid as the phoenix’s feathers.Men of letters stop writing in succession; officials want to get promoted to their city.I become lovesick after our parting; As much as the calamus growing.” It was not clearly recorded in historical documents whether he had met Xue Tao in person, but the above poem demonstrates his appreciation and admiration of the talented Xue Tao.In another aspect, it shows how talented Xue was.

After Yuan Zhen and Bai Juyi entered Shu, their poetic talent was nourished by the picturesque area.

Xue Tao (768?–832) was specially introduced by Zheng Zhenduo (1898–1958), a famous scholar in the modern and contemporary history of Chinese literature, in Section 8 of Chapter 27 of his monograph titledChatu Ben Zhongguo Wenxue Shi[Illustrated History of Chinese Literature] published in 1932.This shows a historian’s recognition of Xue as an important poetess.Complete Tang Poemscovers about 200 poetesses, collecting 86 of Xue’s poems.Therefore,among the poetesses, Xue is only surpassed by Madame Huarui (in detail below) in terms of the number of poems included.In Songzhou, Xue wroteShi Li Shi[Ten Poems of Leaving] with artisanal paper.In the series, one poem titledBi Li Shou[Chinese Brush Leaves Hand] reads,“Made of the finest of hairs, you called me favorite; And on your pink stationery, I dropped precious flowers.” It shows that “pink stationery” was a kind of paper specially made by Xue and her favorite means to express love.From then on, “pink stationery” became a poetic symbol of the land of Shu.Her relationship with Yuan Zhen was reflected inJi Jiushi Yu Yuan Weizi[SendingOld Poems to Yuan Zhen] as “Like hidden emerald, I’m ever kept apart; On my self-made rosy leaf, I pour out my heart.” Her relationship with Wei Gao was expressed as, “In and out the vermillion gate, I’ve been allowed to stay.The owner seems to love my joyful singing.But filling my mouth with filthy mud to build my coral pillow; In these rafters, I can’t stand to build one again.” (Yan Li Chao[Swallow Leaves Nest].Both poems are proof of the relationship between this talented lady and the officials.Xue Tao, together with Wenjun, Madame Huarui, and Huang E, were recognized as four talented ladies in Shu.This marks an advancement in the history of Chinese poetry.

The Middle Tang, a period longer than the Early Tang, Golden Age of Tang, and Late Tang, witnessed not only the poetic talent of Bai Juyi, Yuan Zhen, and Xue Tao, but also the brilliance of many other poets.Liu Yuxi wrote several poems under the title ofZhuzhi Ci[Bamboo Branch Songs], which was adapted by Liu from a folk song and later became the name of a tune to whichciorquwas composed.His most famous lines are, “Between the green willows the river flows along; My dear one in a boat is heard to sing a song.The west is veiled in the rain, the east enjoys sunshine; My dear one is as deep in love as day is fine.” Zhong Ziling (744–802), a native of Emei (or Chengdu from other records), lived in the period under the reign of Emperor Dezong (approximately in the late eighth century).He was acclaimed as, “forming a school of his own thoughts” and, “standing out among scholars in Shu” (inShangshu Simen Yuanwailang Zhongjun Muzhiming[Epigraph on Vice Director Zhong] written by Quan Deyu).Zhong was a Confucianist and a poet.AlthoughComplete Tang Poemsonly includes one of his poems,Complete Prose Literature of the Tang Dynastyhas nine prose items written by him, and eight of them are rhymedfu(intermediary pieces between poetry and prose).After Chengdu was occupied and slaughtered by the Nanzhao Kingdom in the third year of Dahe (829), Yong Tao (?-834?), a native of Chengdu, wrote the poem series titledAi Shuren wei Nanman fulu wuzhang[Five Poems on Mourning the Captivity of Shu People by the Nanman Tribe], which reads, “The city was returned to the Han general; But beautiful women were seized by barbarian tribesmen.In the south of the Brocade River cries were heard diminishing; They were from Shu captives weeping for forced leaving.” (Chuchu Chengdu Wen Kusheng[Hearing Captives Crying for Leaving Chengdu]) and “There’s no land of Han to the south of Xizhou; They felt sad that they would become barbarian people since then.Great sorrow suddenly rose with a gust of gale; The clouds were gloomy and the sun was setting.” (Bie Xizhou Yishi Tongku Yunri Weizhi Bianse[Upon Leaving Xizhou Great Sorrow Echoed by Clouds and Sun Turning Gloomy].He recorded the terrible disaster happening in the land of Shu at that time with his verses.

It can be said that poems are not only literary works.They are also of historical significance.Poets, whether they came to Shu from other places or were born there, all witnessed the Tang Empire going from prosperity to decline, and recorded this period by means of poems for later generations.

Late Tang: Represented by Li Shangyin, Wen Tingyun, and Wei Zhuang

Zheng Zhenduo held that the style created by Li Shangyin and Wen Tingyun opened a new chapter for the genreciin the Five Dynasties and the Northern Song and Southern Song dynasties.(Chatu Ben Zhongguo Wenxue Shi[Illustrated History of Chinese Literature II]).The opinion is well-grounded.

Anyone who knows even a little about Tang poems cannot be ignorant ofThe Sad Zitherwritten by Li Shangyin (813?–858?), “Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? Each string,each strain evokes but vanished springs.Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes; From sunburnt jade in Blue Field let smoke rise.Such feeling cannot be recalled again: It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” Li’s poems became very popular in the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty.Then they have been valued more since the Ming and Qing dynasties.TheTangshi Sanbai Shou[Three Hundred Tang Poems], the most influential anthology of poems in China, includes 24 of Li’s poems.Therefore, Li ranks fourth in terms of the number of poems collected by the anthology,just following Du Fu (38), Wang Wei (29), and Li Bai (27).As mentioned above, the four poets were closely related to the land of Shu.His riddle poems, represented by the above poem starting withJinse[The Sad Zither] in the first line, contain many allusions and derivatives, featuring magnificent descriptions, tender and romantic sentiments, and mournful and heart-touching feelings so that his poems are considered phenomenal in the history of Chinese poetry.He had his best days during the four years when he served in the governor’s office of Zi prefecture (presentday Santai county).He wrote many poems in the land of Shu, which he had longed to visit.Li’s prose compositions were recorded in 11 volumes (Vol.771 to Vol.782) ofComplete Prose Literature of the Tang Dynasty.When he lived in the land of Shu, he wroteZizhou Daoxing Guan Beiming(Bingxu) (Inscription on Daoxing Temple of Zi prefecture [Preface Included]),Jianzhou Chongyang Ting Ming (Bingxu)(Inscription on Chongyang Pavilion of Jian prefecture [Preface Included]),Tang Zizhou Huiyi Jingshe Nanchan Yuan Sizheng Tang Beiming (Bingxu)(Inscription on Sizheng Room, Southern Buddhist Hall of Huiyi Vihara in Zi prefecture of Tang [Preface Included]).These texts preserve the precious cultural legacy of the area.“You have arrived in Linqiong at the old wine stand; Asking if Sima Xiangru is still around.Cold was the zither with the golden emblem; In love with the new guy, Wenjun no longer missed her ex.” (Ji Shu Ke[To a Guest from Shu]).Through such poems or prose, Li showed that he was proud of being like a local there.

Huajian Ji[Among the Flowers] contains 66 ci-poems of Wen Tingyun (812?–882?).These cipoems describe nothing related to Shu, but from Vol.577 to Vol.583 ofComplete Tang Poems,there are several of Wen’s poems relevant to the land of Shu.Just some words in the titles already show the relevance, including Jincheng [Brocade city], Lizhou [Li prefecture], and Xinjin.Jincheng Qu[Song of Brocade city] can even be taken as a simplified collection of the culture,geography, and customs of the area.The poem reads, “Snow glitters on mountain ranges in Shu; They are as many as bamboo shoots winding through.The wind stirs the brocade washed in the river; With colors of rosy clouds, the patterns are like blooming azalea.Cuckoos fly to somewhere under the rocks; They whine about their nostalgia at moon nights.The Ba River flows endlessly in a melancholy mood; The weaving girls are making brocade with blood and tears.When they die, their miserable souls still cannot return home; Then they learn to plant Ormosia trees at the river head.Even they can send seeds home when the trees grow up; They cannot cross the five thousandliof wilderness to head for home.” Even seven-character lines can have a regulated style under Wen’s brush, not to mention his five-character verses written in Shu.They includeWushan Shennümiao[Shennü Temple of Wushan Mountain], which reads, “The old tree is not luxuriant anymore; The small boat is loaded with grief and bitterness.A grove of mottled bamboo grows in the night; What does the jade pendant clatter for?” andLvbo Xinjin Queji Yier Zhiji[To My Bosom Friend During My Stay in Xinjin during My Trip], which reads, “I sense the grief and bitterness of separation; I seem to hear songs loud and noisy.The woods are high and the moon just rises; The river afar seems misty and dusky.” Wen and Li are both recognized as representative poets of Late Tang, but Wen’s contribution to Chinese poetry is more attributable to hisAmong the Flowers.The first piece ofciin Vol.1 of the collection isPusaman[Buddha-like Barbarian], which reads, “The hill-by-hill scene on screen shows dim or bright glow; Her curled hair flits over her cheeks like clouds above snow.”

Hence, speaking ofci, no one does not know his name.As famous as Li Shangyin for poems,the two are collectively called “Wen Li”, while forci, he is often linked with Wei Zhuang and collectively called “Wen Wei.”

According to Xia Chengtao (1900–1986), a famous scholar in theci-poetic study, Wei Zhuang(836?–910) was from “an aristocratic family in the Tang Dynasty.” Before he came to Shu, he had already risen to fame through his poems.After experiencing the Gengzi Rebellion (also called the Guangming Rebellion) in the first year of Guangming during Emperor Xizong’s reign, he wroteQinfu Yin[The Lament of the Lady of Qin], which was regarded by Chen Yin Ke (1890–1969), a famous historian, as “the greatest work of Wei” inWei Zhuang Qinfu Yin Jiaojian[Verification and Commentary on Wei Zhuang’sQinfu Yin].Because of the brilliant couplet, “The Inner Treasury was burned to ashes of brocade and embroidery; On the Street of Heaven everywhere one stepped were the bones of officials.” Wei was then called a scholar known for “the Lament of the Lady of Qin.” Wei’s influence on later generations does not come from his poems but hisciwritten after he lived in Shu.Complete Tang Poemscontains over 300 of his poems, including 54 pieces ofci-poems, which makes him the poet with the largest number ofcipoetry included in the collection.We have no evidence now if there is any relevance between Wen’sci-poems and the land of Shu, but we are certain that manyci-poems of Wei are related to it because of the following: four lyrics to the tuneQing Ping Yue[Pure Serene Music], three lyrics to the tuneHeChuan[River Messages], five lyrics to the tuneTian Xian Zi[Heaven’s Immortal], and two lyrics to the tuneSi Di Xiang[Thoughts of Paradise].The second lyric to the tuneThoughts of Paradisedepicts the scenes and imageries that were typical to the Chengdu Plain, such as, “On a spring day’s stroll; Almond blossoms drift all over my head.Who’s that young man on the pathway?How suave he is! I would like to be married to him; My whole life long.Should I be thoughtlessly abandoned, I would feel no shame.” In 910, the fourth year of Wucheng of Former Shu, Wei Zhuang died at the age of 75 in Hualinfang [Flowery House] (in the present-day Wuhou district of Chengdu).Whether from a geographical or cultural point of view, his death marked the end of Tang poetry and the beginning of a new age.Six decades after his death, ancient China entered a dynasty, the Song Dynasty, which emphasized civil administration over national defense, and an era that witnessed the heyday ofcipoetry, for which Wen and Wei were pioneers.

In the Late Tang, Chang’an and Luoyang, the two capitals, as well as other places in the Central Plains, were looted and damaged in the war.Towns and villages, and culture and education, struggled to survive in a deserted and bleak situation.The land of Shu at that time was comparatively peaceful and steady due to separation or being a long distance from the Central Plains.For instance, during the An Lushan Rebellion, Emperor Xuanzong fled to Shu for a relative sanctuary, and during the Guangming Rebellion, Emperor Xizong escaped to Shu as well.The poetry circles in Shu were very active back then.

Madame Huarui (883?–926?) was a concubine of Later Shu’s emperor Meng Chang.Complete Tang Poemshas 99 of her poems.Though collectively called “Gong Ci” [Lyrics on Court Life],not all her poems were about grievance and loneliness in the imperial harem.Her verses are as refreshing and natural as in, “The nine turnings of the Dragon Pool are connected underneath;the willow twigs rise with the gentle breeze.The scenery is as beautiful as that of Jiangnan;Gaily painted pleasure boats are moving across green water.With the touch of the spring breeze, everything looks vivid and vibrant; I stealthily pick an acacia twig and walk by the river.Unfortunately, my behavior is spotted by an attendant at a distance; I then pretend to use the twig to throw at an oriole.” Her other lyrics express such feelings and reality as genuine as in,“I entered the interior garden on the Start of Spring Day; The ruby flowers were as tender and impressive as light rosy clouds.I knelt down on a dewy marble step; I heard the imperial edict say I was selected to be a concubine in the palace.I was accompanied by many attendants; my brush and ink-stone were carried along the pond road.I can write characters on colored paper;So I create some new poems by the imperial form.” This shows her talent and interest.Her lines make readers wonder if her creation was the inspiration forLi Qingzhao’s Xiari Jueju[Summer Quatrains].For example, “The king on the rampart flies the white flag; Deep within the palace how could I know? One hundred forty thousand all disarmed! Among these were there not a single man?” (Shu Wangguoshi[Narrating the Death of the Shu State])

Jia Dao (779–843) was regarded as the originator of the industrious versification style of poetry.He died in Puzhou (present-day Anyue), a key town famous for Buddhist stone carvingswhen he served as Administrator of Granaries there.Complete Tang Poemscontains 390 of his poems.Most of them were written when he was at his post in Shu.For instance,Song Yong Tao Rushu[Seeing Yong Tao off to Shu],Song Li Fu Shilang Jiannan Xingying[Seeing off Assistant Minister Li Fu to Field Headquarters in Jiannan], andSong Zhu Xiu Gui Jiannan[Seeing off Zhu Xiu for His Return to Jiannan].His poemTi Changjiang[On Changjiang] reads, “In Changjiang after many rainy days; The moon shines amid myriads of stars.” The “Changjiang” in this poem does not refer to the Yangtze River.It was actually the name of the jurisdiction covering presentday Daying and Pengxi counties of Suining city in Sichuan.After his demotion, Jia first served as an official registrar in Changjiang, where he perhaps enjoyed three years of the freest state in his life.Therefore, he was also called “Jia Changjiang,” and his anthology titledChangjiang Ji[The Collection of Changjiang] as well.

Li Yuan, whose years of birth and death are unknown, was a native of Shu and a successful candidate in the highest imperial examination in the third year of Taihe (830).He served as the military and political chief of Zhongzhou, Jianzhou (present-day Jian’ou city of Fujian province),and Jiangzhou (present-day Jiujiang city of Jiangxi province) in the capacity of the prefectural governor.Later he went to the capital to be the prime minister.Therefore, his poems are highly related to the system, officials, affairs, and history of the Tang Dynasty.His couplet, “In the green mountains not sated after countless cups of wine; The entire day whiled away over one game of go.” (in Vol.519 ofComplete Tang Poems), almost made the Tang emperor of his time doubt his governing ability.His nostalgia is fully reflected in his poem titledSong Ren Ru Shu[Seeing Someone off to Shu], which reads, “Men from Shu miss their homes much; Today you are leaving for such a nice place.Beyond clouds, trees are growing verdantly; Red structures are post houses along the way.The cuckoo chirps as the ancient king; The Ba River meanders through like a Chinese character.Not knowing if on a rainy night; Where can I dream of my Daozhou?” Here Daozhou is actually another name of Yizhou (Chengdu).Therefore, this poem reflects most of his nostalgia.

Zheng Gu (851?–910), who had entered Shu several times, was praised by Ouyang Xiu, a leading and pioneering figure in the literary world of the Song Dynasty as, “When I was a child, I often recited Zheng’s poems.” This shows the status that Zheng’s poems enjoyed at the beginning of the Song Dynasty.Complete Tang Poemsincludes 325 of his poems, over 40 of which were written in Shu.For instance, “The drizzle of rain touches everywhere wet; The sun sets over the sparsely populated area in the west.Spring fills me with nostalgia for Shu; As I no longer hear cuckoos’ cry.” (Jialing), or “The steep mountain has white clouds on top; The snow remains on the peak even in spring…I cannot help moving toward the temple; A picturesque scene just jumps into my sight.” (Emeishan[Emei Mountain]), or “A thousand patches of field for growing tea in Mengding; A clear brook for making paper in Huanhua.Only trees still exist in the house of Yang Xiong; Even old neighbors were gone around Du Fu’s cottage…” (Shu Zhong San Shou[Three Poems on Shu II].We can thus assume that the land of Shu played an important role in thedevelopment of poetry in the Late Tang and witnessed its last glory.Or we can say that just for the Late Tang only, the land of Shu had preserved all the elegance of Tang poetry.

The Ba and Shu areas, or the Sichuan Basin, were once home or temporary dwelling places to a number of brilliant Tang poets that are remembered today.Fang Hui of the Yuan Dynasty regarded “Chen Zi’ang as the progenitor of Tang poetry in the Early Tang,” and Zhang Duanyi of the Song Dynasty referred to Zheng Gu as “the leading poet in the Late Tang.” Chen and Zheng stood respectively for the inception and culmination of the glory of Tang poetry.In a nutshell, the land of Shu and Tang poetry benefited each other and prospered together.