毛雨晴(綜述) 樊曉明(審校)
(復(fù)旦大學(xué)附屬金山醫(yī)院消化科 上海 201508)
饑餓素(ghrelin)在非酒精性脂肪肝?。∟AFLD)中的研究進(jìn)展
毛雨晴(綜述) 樊曉明△(審校)
(復(fù)旦大學(xué)附屬金山醫(yī)院消化科 上海 201508)
非酒精性脂肪肝病(non-alcoholic fatty liver disease,NAFLD)在肝臟疾病譜中占據(jù)日益重要的地位,其與胰島素抵抗和氧化應(yīng)激密切相關(guān)。饑餓素(ghrelin)作為一種新發(fā)現(xiàn)的從胃內(nèi)提取的激素,是第一種生長激素促分泌素的內(nèi)源性配體,能促進(jìn)生長激素分泌,同時增強(qiáng)食欲,減少脂肪利用,維持能量正平衡,并在改善胰島素抵抗、抑制炎性反應(yīng)、抗纖維化和腫瘤等方面有一定作用,可能對NAFLD起到治療作用。本文就目前國內(nèi)外關(guān)于饑餓素在NAFLD中的研究作一綜述。
饑餓素(ghrelin); 非酒精性脂肪肝病(NAFLD); 胰島素抵抗; 炎性反應(yīng); 纖維化; 腫瘤
隨著生活方式和飲食結(jié)構(gòu)的改變,非酒精性脂 肪肝?。╪on-alcoholic fatty liver disease,NAFLD)在肝臟疾病譜中占據(jù)日益重要的地位。NAFLD是排除過量飲酒、使用促脂肪變性藥物、遺傳異常等引起肝脂肪變性的繼發(fā)性因素后,經(jīng)影像學(xué)或組織學(xué)證據(jù)表明肝臟脂肪變性的肝病綜合征,經(jīng)歷由單純脂肪性變發(fā)展為肝炎、肝硬化甚至肝癌的發(fā)展過程[1],在西方國家患病率高達(dá)20%~30%[2],近20年來亞洲人群患病率也不斷增高[3]。饑餓素(ghrelin)作為一種新發(fā)現(xiàn)的主要在胃內(nèi)合成的生長激素促分泌素內(nèi)源性配體,在NAFLD的發(fā)生、演變和治療中可能起到重要作用。
饑餓素概述饑餓素是日本科學(xué)家Kojima等[4]從大鼠胃內(nèi)提取的第一個生長激素促分泌素受體(growth hormone secretagogue receptor,GHSR)的內(nèi)源性配體,由28個氨基酸殘基組成,主要由胃底泌酸腺的X/A細(xì)胞合成,在腦、心肺、小腸、腎臟、脂肪組織、胰腺等均有發(fā)現(xiàn)。根據(jù)分泌形式不同可分為乙?;╝cyl ghrelin,AG)和去乙?;╠esacyl ghrelin,DAG),后者第3位絲氨酸殘基可被正辛酸修飾成為AG饑餓素[5]。以往認(rèn)為DAG饑餓素?zé)o活性,但近年來發(fā)現(xiàn)其也有一定作用。GHS-R是一種G蛋白偶聯(lián)受體,主要分布于下丘腦-垂體,在心肺、胰腺、胃腸及多種免疫細(xì)胞中也有分布[6]。GHS-R分為GHS-R1a和GHS-R1b兩種形式,目前認(rèn)為前者是功能性受體。饑餓素與功能性受體結(jié)合后可發(fā)揮多種生物學(xué)效應(yīng),如促進(jìn)GH釋放后刺激胃酸分泌和胃腸蠕動、增加食欲等。饑餓素在抑制胰島素抵抗、抗炎反應(yīng)、抗纖維化和腫瘤中可能發(fā)揮一定作用。
饑餓素-GOAT系統(tǒng)與代謝綜合征代謝綜合征是以胰島素抵抗為中心環(huán)節(jié),包含不少于3個如下特征的全身綜合征:腹型肥胖、高血糖、高血壓、高三酰甘油血癥和低高密度脂蛋白血癥[7]。NAFLD是代謝綜合征在肝臟的主要表現(xiàn)。
饑餓素與胰島素抵抗 在“二次打擊”學(xué)說中,導(dǎo)致NAFLD產(chǎn)生的第一次打擊為胰島素抵抗。胰島素抵抗程度越嚴(yán)重,肝臟的損傷程度也越大,所以胰島素增敏劑可能成NAFLD的治療方法[8]。目前關(guān)于饑餓素與胰島素的關(guān)系仍存在爭議。Granata等[9]在胰島β細(xì)胞系HIT-T15細(xì)胞株中發(fā)現(xiàn)饑餓素通過Galpha(s)蛋白促進(jìn)HIT-T15增殖,抑制其凋亡,而饑餓素抗體可促進(jìn)其凋亡,并可能通過c AMP蛋白激酶 A(c AMP/protein kinase A,c AMP/PKA)、磷脂酰絲氨酸 3 激酶-Akt(phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase,PI3K/Akt)、細(xì)胞外信號調(diào)節(jié)酶(extracellular regulated kinase1/2,ERK1/2)等信號通路抑制IFN-γ/TNF-a等炎性因子介導(dǎo)的胰島β細(xì)胞凋亡作用。但也有研究認(rèn)為饑餓素對胰島素主要為抑制作用,并可能通過增加1型糖尿病患者胰島β細(xì)胞自身抗原2β(IA-2β)表達(dá)[10]以及腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶-解偶聯(lián)蛋白2(AMP-activated protein kinase-uncoupling protein 2,AMPK-UCP2)信號途徑達(dá)到抑制作用[11]。有學(xué)者提出胰島素能降低饑餓素濃度,且該作用與血糖影響相獨立[12]。但Longo等[13]發(fā)現(xiàn)敲掉GHS-R基因能改善小鼠胰島素敏感性。也有研究表明,低饑餓素水平與胰島素抵抗指數(shù)(HOMAIR)呈正相關(guān),高水平饑餓素可以降低患NAFLD的風(fēng)險[14-15]。Qader等[16]在小鼠胰島中發(fā)現(xiàn)低劑量AG抑制胰島素分泌而高劑量則促進(jìn)胰島素分泌,大鼠胰島素分泌與饑餓素水平呈濃度依賴性。饑餓素與胰島素分泌及其敏感性的關(guān)系還有待深入研究。
饑餓素與脂質(zhì)代謝 NAFLD患者中常見脂質(zhì)代謝紊亂的現(xiàn)象。脂質(zhì)攝入增加、高脂血癥及脂肪組織動員增加,使肝臟攝取脂肪酸增加,線粒體氧化超載。高胰島素血癥使基因轉(zhuǎn)錄水平上調(diào),促進(jìn)脂肪在肝臟的重新合成;極低密度脂蛋白合成和分泌減少,致三酰甘油轉(zhuǎn)運障礙[17]。饑餓素在肥胖人群和NAFLD患者中的水平下降,是否為減少能量攝入的自我保護(hù)機(jī)制還有待深入研究。饑餓素有促進(jìn)攝食作用,可增加脂肪權(quán)重及增加脂肪酸合成酶(fatty acid synthase,F(xiàn)ASN)、硬脂酰輔酶A脫氫酶(stearoyl-Co A desaturase 1,SCD1)等脂肪合成指標(biāo)的表達(dá)[18],并通過絲裂原激活蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase,MAPK)和 PI3/Akt途徑促進(jìn)脂肪細(xì)胞增殖和分化,抑制凋亡[19],尤其增加腹部白色脂肪儲存,該作用與中樞刺激食欲作用相獨立,而DAG對脂肪無影響[20]。
饑餓素與心血管風(fēng)險 研究表明,NAFLD增加冠狀動脈粥樣硬化(coronary atherosclerosis,CA)的發(fā)生風(fēng)險,可能為CA的獨立危險因素[21],其機(jī)制可能與脂質(zhì)過氧化產(chǎn)生活性氧自由基(reacetive oxygen species,ROS)、刺激炎性因子及C反應(yīng)蛋白產(chǎn)生有關(guān)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在糖尿病患者中,低水平饑餓素與CA的嚴(yán)重程度密切相關(guān),可能對評估CA預(yù)后有重要價值[22]。Tesauro等[23]認(rèn)為饑餓素通過增加NO生物活性來逆轉(zhuǎn)代謝綜合征患者體內(nèi)的內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞損傷。
GOAT與代謝綜合征 饑餓素-O-乙酰轉(zhuǎn)移酶(ghrelin-O-acyltransferase,GOAT)是一種能將饑餓素第3位絲氨酸殘基乙?;?、多面體的膜結(jié)合酶,主要表達(dá)于胃和腸腺[24],是唯一能夠乙?;囸I素的酶。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),GOAT基因敲除小鼠限制能量喂養(yǎng)后比普通小鼠體重下降更多、血糖更低,而該作用可以通過外源性乙?;囸I素逆轉(zhuǎn)。GOAT抑制劑還能預(yù)防高脂飼料喂養(yǎng)的小鼠體重增加,刺激胰島素釋放[25]。GOAT能減少饑餓素乙?;黾覦AG水平,饑餓素/Goat/GHS-R系統(tǒng)已成為治療肥胖的新方向[26]。Romero等[27]認(rèn)為,GOAT可能成為調(diào)節(jié)饑餓素活性的新靶向,對代謝綜合征的治療有潛在價值。
饑餓素與炎性反應(yīng)肝細(xì)胞堆積的脂質(zhì)會損傷線粒體抗氧化能力,刺激過氧化物酶和微粒體途徑增加對脂質(zhì)的氧化,ROS增加,激發(fā)炎性細(xì)胞因子產(chǎn)生。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),單純脂肪肝發(fā)生炎性反應(yīng)與肝活化核因子κB(hepatic activities of nuclear factorκB,NF-κB)信號通路、庫普弗細(xì)胞激活及肝細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生炎性介質(zhì)有關(guān),而游離脂肪酸會通過溶酶體和組織蛋白酶相關(guān)機(jī)制直接激活I(lǐng)KK-β/NF-κB信號通路。細(xì)胞凋亡也是氧化應(yīng)激后肝細(xì)胞損傷的重要機(jī)制,因此抑制TNF-a對于抑制細(xì)胞凋亡至關(guān)重要[28]。
研究發(fā)現(xiàn),饑餓素可能通過抑制交感神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)活性和增加迷走神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)活性來達(dá)到抗炎作用[29]。目前已在大腦多個部位發(fā)現(xiàn)饑餓素受體,推測饑餓素可能在中樞發(fā)揮作用。Sato等[30]發(fā)現(xiàn),長期使用GHS-R拮抗劑的嚙齒動物血漿腎上腺素和去甲腎上腺素水平上升。研究表明,大腦中的孤束核(nucleus tractus solitarii,NTS)能直接或間接興奮延髓腹外側(cè)區(qū)尾端(caudal ventrolateral medulla,CVLM),導(dǎo)致抑制性神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)γ-氨基丁酸(gammaaminobutyric acid,GABA)輸向延髓腹外側(cè)區(qū)頭端(rostral ventrolateral medulla,RVLM),同時刺激脊髓交感節(jié)前神經(jīng)元和節(jié)后神經(jīng)元,刺激靶器官(如腸道)釋放去甲腎上腺素,與肝庫普弗細(xì)胞相應(yīng)受體結(jié)合,激活P38 MPAK途徑,繼而協(xié)同 NF-κB途徑,釋放TNF-a和IL-6等炎性因子[29],導(dǎo)致肝損傷。饑餓素能通過上調(diào)MAP磷酸激酶-1抑制P38 MAPK途徑,從而改善炎性反應(yīng)[31]。饑餓素抗炎的神經(jīng)機(jī)制還與迷走神經(jīng)激活有關(guān)。Shimizu等[32]證明,中樞注入饑餓素能激活心迷走神經(jīng),使心臟釋放乙酰膽堿增加。外周乙酰膽堿釋放增加能激活a7-亞基膽堿能受體,發(fā)揮膽堿能抗炎作用,抑制IL-1β、IL-6、IL-18及 TNF等炎性介質(zhì)釋放[33]。
Xia等[34]發(fā)現(xiàn)饑餓素能通過抗CD3抗體刺激抑制小鼠脾臟T細(xì)胞增生,并抑制IL-4和IL-10等細(xì)胞因子的m RNA表達(dá)。Dixit等[35]用小分子干擾RNA(siRNA)敲除人T細(xì)胞表面饑餓素表達(dá)后發(fā)現(xiàn),IFN-γ、IL-17及其他促炎因子增加,提示饑餓素可能通過T細(xì)胞發(fā)揮抗炎作用。Li等[36]發(fā)現(xiàn),饑餓素處理的NAFLD大鼠血漿ALT、AST、TNF-a水平及其mRNA表達(dá)較對照組明顯下降,并可能通過LKB1/AMPK和PI3/Akt途徑減輕氧化應(yīng)激和炎性損傷,抑制肝細(xì)胞凋亡,可能成為治療NAFLD的新藥物[37]。饑餓素是一種特異的神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌激素,對機(jī)體免疫反應(yīng)有調(diào)節(jié)作用[38]。
饑餓素與肝纖維化肝臟中纖維發(fā)生細(xì)胞主要來自肝星狀細(xì)胞[39],肝臟炎性損傷會激活肝星狀細(xì)胞等纖維細(xì)胞遷移聚集在組織損傷部位并分泌大量細(xì)胞外基質(zhì),這是肝臟正常的修復(fù)反應(yīng)之一。胰島素抵抗、氧化應(yīng)激、促炎因子釋放及固有免疫對肝纖維化都有促進(jìn)作用[40]。Moreno等[41]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),對結(jié)扎膽管導(dǎo)致的慢性肝損傷小鼠模型予重組饑餓素處理后,能減少肝損傷和成肌纖維細(xì)胞、肝星狀細(xì)胞積累,降低肝纖維化反應(yīng),同時降低肝氧化應(yīng)激和炎性反應(yīng)程度,而饑餓素缺陷小鼠的纖維化和肝損傷程度更嚴(yán)重。饑餓素能減輕肝細(xì)胞炎性壞死,減少肝氧化應(yīng)激、轉(zhuǎn)變生長因子β1(主要的肝促纖維細(xì)胞因子)表達(dá),減少肝星狀細(xì)胞積累和基質(zhì)蛋白合成,這些可能解釋饑餓素抑制肝纖維化的機(jī)制。饑餓素的抗纖維作用使其及GHS-R激動劑或成為治療肝纖維化的藥物,但饑餓素拮抗劑可以治療肥胖和糖尿病,長期應(yīng)用是否會促進(jìn)NAFLD的纖維化進(jìn)展,同時長期予饑餓素抗纖維治療是否會導(dǎo)致肥胖和脂肪肝也值得思考[42]。
饑餓素與肝癌少數(shù)肝硬化患者發(fā)展為肝癌的機(jī)制尚不明確。饑餓素在多種上皮細(xì)胞起源的腫瘤組織及細(xì)胞中均有表達(dá),包括乳腺癌、胰腺癌、前列腺癌和垂體瘤等[43]。Murata等[44]在肝癌細(xì)胞中發(fā)現(xiàn)GHS-R,并認(rèn)為肝癌細(xì)胞暴露在饑餓素當(dāng)中會引起胰島素受體底物蛋白-1(insulin receptor substrate-1,IRS-1)酪氨酸磷酸化,調(diào)節(jié)小分子生長因素受體結(jié)合蛋白-2,促進(jìn)有絲分裂蛋白激酶活性及細(xì)胞增殖。但Thielemans等[45]卻未在人肝癌細(xì)胞株中檢測到GHS-R1a表達(dá)。饑餓素在體外能明顯抑制乳腺癌細(xì)胞增殖,但并未在乳腺癌細(xì)胞上發(fā)現(xiàn)GHS-R1a受體,提示乳腺癌細(xì)胞上還存在GHSR的其他亞型[46]。饑餓素能促進(jìn)還是抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞生長,體內(nèi)或體外效果是否一致,對乳腺癌細(xì)胞的抑制作用是否具有特異性。這些問題還需要進(jìn)一步研究解決。饑餓素能促進(jìn)腫瘤晚期患者的食欲,增加體重,改善惡液質(zhì)狀態(tài),但需警惕長期使用是否會促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞增殖[47]。饑餓素可以減輕腫瘤化療帶來的消化道不良反應(yīng),或成為改善化療胃腸道反應(yīng)的新藥物[48]。
結(jié)語NAFLD已經(jīng)成為威脅人類健康的第二大肝病,經(jīng)歷“二次打擊”從單純非酒精性脂肪肝到脂肪性肝炎、肝硬化甚至肝癌的演變。饑餓素作為一種新發(fā)現(xiàn)的內(nèi)源性促生長激素釋放肽,不僅能促進(jìn)生長激素釋放、增加食欲,對改善胰島素抵抗,抑制炎癥反應(yīng)、抗肝纖維化和腫瘤等可能有促進(jìn)作用,因此具有巨大的臨床研究價值和應(yīng)用前景。饑餓素通過抑制交感神經(jīng)活性、促進(jìn)迷走神經(jīng)活性及激活LKB1/AMPK和PI3/Akt等信號通路抑制炎性反應(yīng),能否成為治療NAFLD的新靶向;GOAT酶激動劑或抑制劑能否通過對饑餓素的調(diào)節(jié)作用來發(fā)揮對代謝綜合征的治療作用;饑餓素與胰島素釋放敏感性的關(guān)系如何;饑餓素增加細(xì)胞有絲分裂和癌變的風(fēng)險在體內(nèi)和體外試驗是否有區(qū)別;在饑餓素促進(jìn)食欲、增加脂肪合成、治療NAFLD的同時如何權(quán)衡肥胖問題。我們期待對饑餓素的深入了解,以便充分挖掘出其潛在的臨床價值。
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Research advances of ghrelin on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD)
MAO Yu-qing,F(xiàn)AN Xiao-ming△
(Department of Digestive,Jinshan Hospital,F(xiàn)udan University,Shanghai201508,China)
ghrelin; non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD); insulin resistance;inflammation; fibrosis; tumor
R 575.5
B
10.3969/j.issn.1672-8467.2014.02.022
2013-04-24;編輯:段佳)
上海市衛(wèi)生局資助項目(2010075);上海市自然科學(xué)基金(11ZR1405700);上海市醫(yī)學(xué)重點專科建設(shè)計劃項目(ZK2012B20)
△Corresponding author E-mail:xiaomingfan57@hotmail.com
【Ahstract】Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD)has been playing an increasingly important role in liver disease which is closely related to insulin resistance and oxidative stress.As a newly found hormone purified from stomach,ghrelin is the first endogenous ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor.It can promote the secretion of growth hormone,enhance appetitie,suppress lipometabolism and maintain energy balance,which also cintribute to improvement of insulin resistance,suppression of inflammation reaction,limitation of the development of fibrosis and tumor,etc.Ghrelin probably stands a chance of becoming a new drug treating NAFLD.This review outlines the recent studies on NAFLD and ghrelin both nationally and internationally.
*This work was supported hy Shanghai Municipal Health Bureau(2010075),the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality(11ZR1405700)and the Key Clinical Disciplines Construction of Shanghai Municipality(ZK2012B20).