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上肢周圍神經(jīng)損傷后的痛性神經(jīng)瘤及其治療

2014-04-18 01:42鮑其遠(yuǎn)綜述肖成偉審校
關(guān)鍵詞:痛性殘端局部

鮑其遠(yuǎn)(綜述) 肖成偉 王 濤(審校)

(復(fù)旦大學(xué)附屬華山醫(yī)院手外科-衛(wèi)生部手功能重建重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室-上海市周圍神經(jīng)顯微外科重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室 上海 200040)

上肢周圍神經(jīng)損傷后的痛性神經(jīng)瘤及其治療

鮑其遠(yuǎn)(綜述) 肖成偉 王 濤△(審校)

(復(fù)旦大學(xué)附屬華山醫(yī)院手外科-衛(wèi)生部手功能重建重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室-上海市周圍神經(jīng)顯微外科重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室 上海 200040)

外周神經(jīng)損傷后,受損神經(jīng)局部往往會(huì)出現(xiàn)神經(jīng)纖維的異常生長增生,于損傷局部形成迂曲、錯(cuò)長,最終形成局部腫塊,即所謂創(chuàng)傷性神經(jīng)瘤,而其中約10%的創(chuàng)傷性神經(jīng)瘤出現(xiàn)頑固的病理性疼痛。在手外科,創(chuàng)傷后痛性神經(jīng)瘤是上肢外周神經(jīng)損傷后常見的嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥之一,療效尚不理想。經(jīng)典手術(shù)治療方法如神經(jīng)殘端轉(zhuǎn)位至肌肉、殘端縫合至小靜脈及神經(jīng)殘端骨內(nèi)包埋等往往療效有限。近年來已嘗試將自體脂肪移植、組織移植、電刺激及神經(jīng)導(dǎo)管等新技術(shù)應(yīng)用于創(chuàng)傷后痛性神經(jīng)瘤的治療。本文就上肢常見的痛性神經(jīng)瘤的原因、診斷及治療進(jìn)展進(jìn)行綜述,為將來該領(lǐng)域的進(jìn)一步研究提供參考。

創(chuàng)傷性神經(jīng)瘤; 周圍神經(jīng)損傷; 外科治療; 疼痛

外周神經(jīng)損傷后,遠(yuǎn)端神經(jīng)發(fā)生瓦勒氏變性,遠(yuǎn)端靶器官隨即失去功能。隨著近端神經(jīng)再生,軸突向遠(yuǎn)端延長,運(yùn)動(dòng)和感覺神經(jīng)纖維逐漸恢復(fù)對靶肌肉的重新支配。但是,在受損神經(jīng)局部往往會(huì)出現(xiàn)神經(jīng)纖維的異常生長,于損傷局部形成迂曲、錯(cuò)長,最終形成局部腫塊,即所謂創(chuàng)傷性神經(jīng)瘤。而并非所有神經(jīng)瘤都會(huì)出現(xiàn)疼痛,Cravioto等[1]研究認(rèn)為只有10%的神經(jīng)瘤出現(xiàn)頑固性疼痛。在手外科,痛性神經(jīng)瘤是上肢外周神經(jīng)損傷后常見的并發(fā)癥之一,目前治療尚不理想。本文就上肢常見的痛性神經(jīng)瘤的好發(fā)部位及原因、痛性神經(jīng)瘤的診斷、傳統(tǒng)治療方法及近年來的進(jìn)展進(jìn)行綜述。

痛性神經(jīng)瘤的好發(fā)部位及其原因

橈神經(jīng)淺支 很多學(xué)者認(rèn)為,橈神經(jīng)淺支損傷后形成的痛性神經(jīng)瘤是較難以處理的神經(jīng)瘤。Dellon等[2]認(rèn)為,橈神經(jīng)淺支可能本身對痛性神經(jīng)瘤具有易感性,同時(shí)橈神經(jīng)淺支極易在腕關(guān)節(jié)探查術(shù)時(shí)發(fā)生醫(yī)源性損傷。橈神經(jīng)淺支在前臂緊貼于肱橈肌深面,自肱橈肌和橈側(cè)腕長伸肌間隙淺出。而在3%~10%的人群中存在解剖變異:橈神經(jīng)淺支自肱橈肌肌腱穿出可能形成卡壓。當(dāng)腕部損傷致橈神經(jīng)淺支包裹固定在腕部瘢痕組織中,同時(shí)合并解剖變異時(shí),腕部活動(dòng)會(huì)對橈淺神經(jīng)形成明顯牽拉損傷。尺神經(jīng)手背支及正中神經(jīng)掌皮支因其活動(dòng)范圍較大,與橈神經(jīng)淺支相比較少形成牽拉損傷。

另外,橈神經(jīng)淺支損傷后的神經(jīng)痛還與前臂外側(cè)皮神經(jīng)密切相關(guān),后者同樣是導(dǎo)致疼痛的潛在原因。前臂外側(cè)皮神經(jīng)在分布上可以與橈神經(jīng)淺支重疊,而橈神經(jīng)淺支損傷或切除后前臂外側(cè)皮神經(jīng)的支配區(qū)可能進(jìn)一步向橈背側(cè)擴(kuò)大。Atherton等[3]認(rèn)為橈神經(jīng)淺支痛性神經(jīng)瘤切除近端轉(zhuǎn)位時(shí),應(yīng)同時(shí)行前臂外側(cè)皮神經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)位,防止局部受損的感覺神經(jīng)殘留。Dellon等[2]通過尸體解剖和臨床觀察發(fā)現(xiàn),前臂外側(cè)皮與橈神經(jīng)淺支重疊分布的出現(xiàn)率高達(dá)75%。隨后他們對15例橈神經(jīng)淺支轉(zhuǎn)位術(shù)后疼痛無緩解的患者再次行前臂外側(cè)皮神經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)位術(shù),術(shù)后所有患者疼痛皆有所緩解。

正中神經(jīng)掌皮支 正中神經(jīng)掌皮支也是常見外傷后痛性神經(jīng)瘤的發(fā)生部位之一,且常常因腕管綜合征術(shù)中醫(yī)源性損傷而導(dǎo)致,其他醫(yī)源性損傷還包括腕部腱鞘囊腫切除術(shù)和屈肌腱腱鞘切開術(shù)術(shù)中損傷[4]。正中神經(jīng)掌皮支自腕橫紋以近5~7cm發(fā)出,與正中神經(jīng)平行并逐漸走行至橈側(cè)腕屈肌腱鞘橈側(cè),其發(fā)出點(diǎn)存在較多變異,但正中神經(jīng)掌皮支往往在橈側(cè)腕屈肌和掌長肌間隙處損傷,并且橈側(cè)的切口也會(huì)對其分支造成損傷,所以采用環(huán)指尺側(cè)緣延長線上的切口更容易避免其損傷[5]。

截肢(指)后殘端神經(jīng)瘤 截肢(指)后的肢體殘端也容易形成痛性神經(jīng)瘤,據(jù)估計(jì)10%~25%的截肢(指)后患者會(huì)出現(xiàn)痛性神經(jīng)瘤[6],其原因常與瘢痕增生,骨質(zhì)或軟組織及所佩戴假肢的壓迫和激惹,以及中樞神經(jīng)重塑有關(guān)。

神經(jīng)修復(fù)質(zhì)量欠佳所產(chǎn)生的神經(jīng)瘤 Meek等[7]發(fā)現(xiàn),外周神經(jīng)移植修復(fù)后,神經(jīng)瘤形成是最常見的并發(fā)癥。他們推測,其原因可能與縫合口神經(jīng)纖維不匹配,再生神經(jīng)軸突生長至縫合口以外有關(guān)。神經(jīng)移植的另一個(gè)并發(fā)癥是移植神經(jīng)段連續(xù)性神經(jīng)瘤形成,其可能與再生神經(jīng)與移植神經(jīng)管道直徑不匹配有關(guān)。神經(jīng)修復(fù)質(zhì)量不佳引起的痛性神經(jīng)瘤臨床表現(xiàn)與神經(jīng)損傷后所致神經(jīng)痛相似。

痛性神經(jīng)瘤的診斷痛性神經(jīng)瘤患者常以疼痛為主訴,病史常提示疼痛局部存在瘢痕卡壓的可能,體征主要包括神經(jīng)分布區(qū)出現(xiàn)感覺異常,同時(shí)瘢痕卡壓部位神經(jīng)Tinel征陽性[8]。Sood等[9]進(jìn)一步根據(jù)疼痛的表現(xiàn)將痛性神經(jīng)瘤癥狀分為4類:(1)自發(fā)性疼痛;(2)神經(jīng)瘤局部壓痛;(3)與鄰近關(guān)節(jié)活動(dòng)相關(guān)的疼痛;(4)神經(jīng)瘤附近皮膚的感覺異常。同時(shí)結(jié)合輔助檢查,可明確診斷。

痛性神經(jīng)瘤的治療最近50多年來不同學(xué)者報(bào)道了大量痛性神經(jīng)瘤的治療方法,而目前尚無公認(rèn)完全有效的治療方式。保守治療主要包括理療、藥物治療等,往往適用于早期患者,或作為痛性神經(jīng)瘤術(shù)后患者的輔助治療。目前臨床常用藥物主要包括加巴噴丁(gabapentin)、普瑞巴林(pregabalin)等,國際上對此已達(dá)成一定共識(shí)[10],本文不再贅述。而患者經(jīng)保守治療6個(gè)月后緩解不明顯往往意味保守治療無效[11]。而痛性神經(jīng)瘤的手術(shù)指征尚無一致結(jié)論。總的來說,局部神經(jīng)瘤觸痛、Tinel征(+)以及局封治療有效[12]的患者更適宜手術(shù)治療,反之則可能術(shù)后改善不理想。目前手術(shù)治療主要包括以下幾種方式。

神經(jīng)殘端肌肉包埋或骨內(nèi)包埋 神經(jīng)殘端肌肉或骨內(nèi)包埋內(nèi)轉(zhuǎn)位是古老但最常用的術(shù)式之一,目標(biāo)是在神經(jīng)干無張力下將其轉(zhuǎn)位至遠(yuǎn)離創(chuàng)傷、關(guān)節(jié)活動(dòng)及機(jī)械刺激的部位,避免神經(jīng)近端再次長入皮膚及瘢痕組織中。Dellon等[8]系統(tǒng)回顧了與神經(jīng)殘端肌肉包埋患者相關(guān)的大量臨床報(bào)道發(fā)現(xiàn),其中82%的學(xué)者報(bào)道了術(shù)后效果優(yōu)良。組織學(xué)切片檢查隨后發(fā)現(xiàn),埋入肌肉內(nèi)的神經(jīng)殘端神經(jīng)瘤形成不明顯、結(jié)構(gòu)相對整齊,可能是其疼痛緩解的原因。最近,Stokvis等[12]對這一經(jīng)典手術(shù)方式進(jìn)行了長期隨訪,結(jié)果表明神經(jīng)殘端肌肉包埋的有效率達(dá)40%,骨內(nèi)包埋的有效率為33%。也有學(xué)者認(rèn)為骨內(nèi)包埋不如肌肉包埋[13],因?yàn)榧词箤⑸窠?jīng)瘤轉(zhuǎn)位包埋入指骨后局部神經(jīng)仍然靠近指骨,同樣容易出現(xiàn)壓迫刺激;同時(shí)包埋部分近端裸露的神經(jīng)干仍可能通過發(fā)出側(cè)芽支配局部皮膚,造成痛性神經(jīng)瘤復(fù)發(fā)。

神經(jīng)近端縫合至小靜脈 該方法將神經(jīng)塞入小靜脈血管并縫合固定于管腔中。理論上,神經(jīng)軸突與血管內(nèi)膜細(xì)胞可以發(fā)生相互作用,而血流對神經(jīng)再生可能具有抑制作用。Koch等[14]通過對14例患者進(jìn)行臨床實(shí)驗(yàn)后發(fā)現(xiàn)13例患者術(shù)后疼痛明顯緩解,首次手術(shù)者有效率為86%,多次手術(shù)有效率為100%。該技術(shù)優(yōu)點(diǎn)主要包括小靜脈廣泛分布于體內(nèi),不需要長距離的神經(jīng)分離。但是目前該方法報(bào)道不多,尚缺乏足夠臨床證據(jù)。

Gorkish對合法 該方法也稱為中央對合法(centro-centralization),由 Gorkisch 等[15]首次提出,是將兩側(cè)指神經(jīng)遠(yuǎn)端通過端端縫合相互連接,其中一根神經(jīng)予以切斷作為移植神經(jīng),縫合于兩側(cè)指神經(jīng)之間。該方法同樣適用于可以明顯分為2束等粗神經(jīng)束組的神經(jīng)殘端。該方法中移植段神經(jīng)有助于使神經(jīng)相遇點(diǎn)遠(yuǎn)離神經(jīng)縫合口,同時(shí)他們發(fā)現(xiàn)當(dāng)兩側(cè)神經(jīng)交會(huì)并相互交錯(cuò)2~5 mm后,神經(jīng)遠(yuǎn)端即停止再生。Gorkish等[15]提出假設(shè)認(rèn)為:當(dāng)交錯(cuò)神經(jīng)在管道內(nèi)相互擠壓導(dǎo)致末端壓力增大后,神經(jīng)殘端的蛋白合成及軸漿運(yùn)輸隨后停止,所以神經(jīng)軸索無法進(jìn)一步再生,而如果不采用神經(jīng)移植,則由于神經(jīng)遠(yuǎn)端沒有“空隙”,無法使新生軸突長入遠(yuǎn)端,最終導(dǎo)致局部錯(cuò)長形成神經(jīng)瘤。他們的臨床研究取得了滿意的結(jié)果,30例患者術(shù)后僅1例復(fù)發(fā)。該方法同樣缺乏足夠的臨床報(bào)道。

利用組織移植方法覆蓋神經(jīng)殘端 帶血供軟組織瓣或皮瓣是近來報(bào)道較多的一種新方法。該方法主要通過建立健康而供血充足的軟組織床,從而減少對神經(jīng)的化學(xué)和機(jī)械激惹,以充分保護(hù)滋養(yǎng)受損神經(jīng)。常用的方法包括:小魚際脂肪瓣、滑膜瓣、肌瓣及筋膜瓣等。Adani等[16]利用旋前方肌肌瓣轉(zhuǎn)位治療正中神經(jīng)連續(xù)性神經(jīng)瘤所致疼痛,經(jīng)過10~60個(gè)月的隨訪,9例患者中6例疼痛完全緩解,另外3例獲得部分緩解。最近,Krishnan對7例外傷后痛性神經(jīng)瘤患者經(jīng)帶血管筋膜瓣、筋膜皮瓣以及穿支皮瓣(其中3例局部轉(zhuǎn)位皮瓣,4例游離移植皮瓣)術(shù)后平均16個(gè)多月的隨訪,患者VAS疼痛評分從術(shù)前6.5分降至0.4分,所有患者可停止服用阿片肽類藥物,取得了良好的效果,但是由于手術(shù)難度較大,一般認(rèn)為只有當(dāng)多次手術(shù)或多種治療無效,或組織愈合能力不佳后可考慮該方法。

阿霉素與自殺性傳輸 實(shí)驗(yàn)研究中,人們早已發(fā)現(xiàn)以篦麻毒素為代表的一類毒素可以被神經(jīng)末梢攝取,經(jīng)逆行軸漿運(yùn)輸后到達(dá)神經(jīng)元胞體,通過干擾蛋白合成等機(jī)制誘發(fā)神經(jīng)元死亡,則產(chǎn)生疼痛的神經(jīng)纖維便喪失再生能力,即所謂“自殺性傳輸”機(jī)制[17],這類毒素雖然損傷作用較強(qiáng),但是由于選擇性較低,破壞范圍不易控制,尚未在臨床上使用。阿霉素是臨床常用的抗腫瘤藥物,其同樣具有相對較弱的“自殺性傳輸”作用,Grant等[18]報(bào)道在1例腫瘤侵犯臂叢內(nèi)側(cè)束所致癌性疼痛的患者,通過CT引導(dǎo)下將阿霉素注射至臂叢內(nèi)側(cè)束后疼痛緩解,而術(shù)前阿霉素系統(tǒng)用藥下疼痛并無緩解的現(xiàn)象也證明其止痛作用不同于阿霉素的抗腫瘤機(jī)制。王濤等[19]應(yīng)用阿霉素神經(jīng)干注射聯(lián)合神經(jīng)瘤切除,治療外傷后上肢痛性神經(jīng)瘤,經(jīng)24~60個(gè)月的隨訪,其疼痛緩解的有效率可達(dá)77.8%。雖然阿霉素對于周圍神經(jīng)的破壞具有一定的選擇性,但其對神經(jīng)元破壞作用不徹底等不足尚有待進(jìn)一步研究。

電刺激治療痛性神經(jīng)瘤 近年來,電刺激治療疼痛成為研究熱點(diǎn)之一,包括外周電刺激(PNS)、脊髓(SCS)及大腦電刺激治療等都有不同學(xué)者進(jìn)行了報(bào)道,這些電刺激往往采用經(jīng)皮或植入式電極,給予高頻、低電流刺激,目前盡管不同作者采用電刺激的頻率、強(qiáng)度及波形尚未形成統(tǒng)一,但大量報(bào)道認(rèn)為電刺激治療對外周神經(jīng)損傷后的病理性神經(jīng)痛有效[20-21]。不同作者報(bào)道電刺激治療病理性神經(jīng)痛總的有效率可達(dá)60%~70%,可減少陣痛藥物服用以及提高生活質(zhì)量[22]。但是也有不少報(bào)道認(rèn)為電刺激治療病理性疼痛的遠(yuǎn)期療效仍不明確,Kemler等[23]對54例CRPS患者進(jìn)行脊髓電刺激治療的隨機(jī)對照試驗(yàn)表明,術(shù)后1年時(shí)接受脊髓電刺激與安慰劑治療的患者,在局部壓痛、冷熱誘發(fā)痛的緩解上并無顯著差別。Mulvey等[24]在對截肢后患肢痛及殘端痛患者接受經(jīng)皮電刺激治療的報(bào)道進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)回顧,認(rèn)為目前尚無相關(guān)隨機(jī)對照臨床試驗(yàn)證據(jù)??偠灾?,電刺激治療成為近年來的研究熱點(diǎn),其療效尚需進(jìn)一步的臨床檢驗(yàn)。

神經(jīng)導(dǎo)管 隨著人工合成材料技術(shù)的不斷提高,越來越多的學(xué)者嘗試使用人工導(dǎo)管修復(fù)受損神經(jīng),治療痛性神經(jīng)瘤。其中,關(guān)于聚乙醇酸-膠原(PGA-Collagen)的研究較為廣泛,PGA-Collagen導(dǎo)管的外緣由可降解材料PGA(90天內(nèi)降解)組成,同時(shí)具有半透膜性質(zhì),將神經(jīng)瘤切除后利用人工管道進(jìn)行修復(fù),既可以為神經(jīng)纖維提供牢固的骨架,防止瘢痕卡壓,又不影響營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)的交換,具有引導(dǎo)神經(jīng)順行生長、抑制“瘤樣”紊亂生長的作用[25]。Tyner等[26]通過大鼠神經(jīng)損傷模型研究發(fā)現(xiàn)神經(jīng)導(dǎo)管修復(fù)組術(shù)后自發(fā)痛程度較低。臨床上人工導(dǎo)管對于痛性神經(jīng)瘤的治療也逐漸出現(xiàn)相關(guān)報(bào)道[27],Inada等[28]報(bào)道了2例手指神經(jīng)損傷后診斷為CRPSII(即灼性神經(jīng)痛)的患者,經(jīng)病變段神經(jīng)切除人工導(dǎo)管修復(fù)術(shù)后近1年內(nèi),疼痛評分、手指活動(dòng)度、觸覺功能及手部血管舒縮紊亂皆獲得有效緩解。導(dǎo)管治療痛性神經(jīng)瘤最大的優(yōu)勢在于可通過人工材料技術(shù)將信號(hào)分子、干細(xì)胞整合到導(dǎo)管內(nèi)膜中,改變神經(jīng)再生微環(huán)境,因此其在周圍神經(jīng)損傷及神經(jīng)痛的應(yīng)用將具有更大潛在價(jià)值[29]。

脂肪移植 近幾年來利用脂肪移植治療痛性神經(jīng)瘤取得了初步的突破[30-31]。傳統(tǒng)上認(rèn)為利用下腹部多余脂肪組織移植進(jìn)行面部充填具有滿意的長期效果,但在手部因移植脂肪逐漸萎縮而長期療效不確定,而Coleman[32]報(bào)道利用改良的脂肪充填方法獲得了較為滿意的長期療效,隨后Vaienti等[31]將該方法用于痛性神經(jīng)瘤的治療進(jìn)行了病例報(bào)道,通過對2例患者進(jìn)行神經(jīng)瘤切除聯(lián)合Coleman法進(jìn)行神經(jīng)局部脂肪充填(12~15m L),分別經(jīng)過5和7個(gè)月的隨訪,疼痛緩解滿意。最近Ulrich等[30]報(bào)道了1例產(chǎn)婦會(huì)陰切開術(shù)后痛性神經(jīng)瘤的病例,經(jīng)再次神經(jīng)瘤探查切除聯(lián)合Coleman法脂肪充填治療后同樣獲得滿意的療效。目前研究表明,脂肪自體移植具有促進(jìn)局部組織血管化的作用,具體機(jī)制不明,但很可能與脂肪組織中含有脂肪源性干細(xì)胞及前脂肪細(xì)胞有關(guān)[33-34]。

脈沖射頻治療 2008年,Ramanavarapu等[35]首次報(bào)道了2例應(yīng)用脈沖射頻照射L4、L5節(jié)段背根神經(jīng)節(jié)(DRG)治療下肢截肢后殘端痛患者,術(shù)后6個(gè)月隨訪表明患者疼痛皆獲得有效緩解。Wilkes等[36]隨后報(bào)道了1例下肢截肢后幻肢痛患者通過對坐骨神經(jīng)主干進(jìn)行脈沖射頻治療同樣獲得了有效緩解。最近,Restrepo-Garces等[37]對1例下肢截肢后殘端痛患者采用脈沖射頻照射直接破壞殘端神經(jīng)瘤,術(shù)后1、3、6個(gè)月隨訪結(jié)果表明,患者疼痛緩解程度分別達(dá)90%、90%、70%,同時(shí)患者鎮(zhèn)痛藥物服用量減少,且術(shù)后未出現(xiàn)明顯不良反應(yīng)。脈沖射頻因具有創(chuàng)傷小,精度高及不良作用小的特點(diǎn),其在上肢周圍神經(jīng)損傷后痛性神經(jīng)瘤的治療作用有待進(jìn)一步的研究。

結(jié)語總之,目前對于外周神經(jīng)損傷后的痛性神經(jīng)瘤尚無療效肯定、一致公認(rèn)的治療方式[12]。隨著分子生物學(xué)技術(shù)的進(jìn)步,關(guān)于痛性神經(jīng)瘤的機(jī)制研究已深入到離子通道[38]、信號(hào)分子[39]、蛋白組學(xué)[40]以及干細(xì)胞[41]等各個(gè)層面。因此,對于其疼痛機(jī)制的研究以及新的治療方式的探索仍將是我們今后長期的研究任務(wù)。

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Treatment of painful neuromas after peripheral neurotrauma in upper extremities

BAO Qi-yuan,XIAO Cheng-wei,WANG Tao△
(Department of Hand Surgery,Huashan Hospital,F(xiàn)udan University-Key Laboratory of Hand Reconstruction,Ministry of Health-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Peripheral Nerve and Microsurgery,Shanghai200040,China)

traumatic neuroma; pripheral nerve injury; surgical procedure; pain

R 658.2

B

10.3969/j.issn.1672-8467.2014.02.025

2012-11-11;編輯:王蔚)

△Corresponding author E-mail:wtsy@hotmail.com

【Ahstract】After traumatic injury of peripheral nerve,regenerating axons escape and proliferate into the surrounding epineurial tissue in a disorganized fashion,forming whorls,spirals,and convolutions,and finally leading to the so called traumatic neuroma.About 10%of traumatic neuromas are companied by intractable neuropathic pain.In handsurgery,post-traumatic painful neuroma is known as a debilitating sequela of upper limb nerve injury and still remains a clinical challenge.Classical surgical interventions including nerve stump transposition to muscle,vein or bone provide limited efficacy.However,novel surgical techniques in recent years such as adipose autograft,tissue transfer,electrical stimulation,nerve guide tube,etc.have considerably enriched our armamentarium of neuroma treatment.In this article,we briefly review the common painful neuromas of upper extremity with special reference to new approaches emerging in recent years,which might lend support for future study in this area.

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