陳 荔,張力為
(1.北京體育大學(xué)運(yùn)動(dòng)心理學(xué)教研室,北京 100084;2.吉林師范大學(xué)體育學(xué)院,吉林 四平 136000)
風(fēng)險(xiǎn)還是保險(xiǎn)?
——運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我研究述評(píng)
陳 荔1,2,張力為1
(1.北京體育大學(xué)運(yùn)動(dòng)心理學(xué)教研室,北京 100084;2.吉林師范大學(xué)體育學(xué)院,吉林 四平 136000)
從身體自我的結(jié)構(gòu)、測(cè)量、發(fā)展、差異和關(guān)系問題的分類角度對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我相關(guān)的元分析和研究報(bào)告進(jìn)行歸納和評(píng)述,旨在為促進(jìn)健康行為干預(yù)提供參考。主要結(jié)論:運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我結(jié)構(gòu)與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員人群類似,PSDQ、PSPP等身體自我量表同樣適用于運(yùn)動(dòng)員人群;運(yùn)動(dòng)員在運(yùn)動(dòng)能力維度上積極程度高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員;元分析研究顯示運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)稍高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員,但體像障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)比非運(yùn)動(dòng)員稍低,效果量雖低但都可靠;性別、年齡、運(yùn)動(dòng)類型、競(jìng)技水平是探討運(yùn)動(dòng)參與與運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我關(guān)系的重要第三變量。
運(yùn)動(dòng)員;身體自我;身體自尊;身體意象
根據(jù)社會(huì)比較理論[1],運(yùn)動(dòng)員因?yàn)橛?xùn)練比賽任務(wù)和社會(huì)的雙重壓力,其體像障礙、進(jìn)食障礙等適應(yīng)性不良行為的發(fā)生率會(huì)高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員人群[2]。但另一種觀點(diǎn)則認(rèn)為,正因?yàn)閰⑴c高水平身體活動(dòng),與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員相比,女運(yùn)動(dòng)員身材更符合目前社會(huì)流行的“瘦”女性審美標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、男運(yùn)動(dòng)員身材更接近肌肉發(fā)達(dá)的男性審美[3],此外還因高水平身體活動(dòng)能帶來提高自尊、降低抑郁等心理效益[4][5],因而運(yùn)動(dòng)員的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)要低于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員。那么競(jìng)技運(yùn)動(dòng)參與對(duì)于運(yùn)動(dòng)員究竟是一種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)還是一種保險(xiǎn)?處于“更快、更高、更強(qiáng)”競(jìng)技運(yùn)動(dòng)文化影響下的運(yùn)動(dòng)員群體,又有著怎樣的身體自我,他/她們的身體自我與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員人群有什么樣的差異?為了回答以上問題,本文按照張力為對(duì)身體自我5大類問題(結(jié)構(gòu)問題、測(cè)量問題、發(fā)展問題、差異問題和關(guān)系問題)的劃分[6],對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我相關(guān)元分析和研究報(bào)告進(jìn)行以下歸納和綜述。
雖然有Marsh編制的《運(yùn)動(dòng)員自我描述問卷》(Elite Athlete self Description Questionnaire,EASDQ)[7],但在運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我的研究中,最常用的量表仍然是《身體自我描述問卷》(Physical Self-description Questionnaire,PSDQ)[8]和《身體自我知覺量表》(Physical Self-Perception Profile,PSPP)[9]。許多研究以運(yùn)動(dòng)員為參與者對(duì)PSDQ、PSPP進(jìn)行了信效度檢驗(yàn)研究,探討了這些量表在運(yùn)動(dòng)員這一特殊人群中的適用性,并將運(yùn)動(dòng)員與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員人群的身體自我觀念進(jìn)行了對(duì)比[10-13]。Marsh總的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)是:運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自我維度類似于普通人群,這些適用于普通人群的身體自我觀念量表同樣適用于運(yùn)動(dòng)員人群;對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)員與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員的比較分析發(fā)現(xiàn):運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自我知覺優(yōu)于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員人群,尤其是運(yùn)動(dòng)能力維度。
近期運(yùn)動(dòng)員與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員的差異研究,如Asci[14]比較了329名土耳其國(guó)家隊(duì)水平的各項(xiàng)目運(yùn)動(dòng)員與469名非運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自我的差異,發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)員與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員各維度均差異可靠;Miller和Heinrich[15]比較了44名中學(xué)生年齡、34名大學(xué)年齡的運(yùn)動(dòng)員,與65名普通中學(xué)生和44名普通大學(xué)生的身高、身體意象、運(yùn)動(dòng)能力等相關(guān)因素,發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)員有更積極的運(yùn)動(dòng)能力自我觀念。Findlay和Bowker[16]比較了171名優(yōu)秀足球運(yùn)動(dòng)員、71名一般運(yùn)動(dòng)員與145名非運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自我,發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)員的運(yùn)動(dòng)能力、身體外表、整體身體自尊、自尊與運(yùn)動(dòng)等級(jí)正相關(guān),非運(yùn)動(dòng)員與優(yōu)秀運(yùn)動(dòng)員、一般運(yùn)動(dòng)員之間有顯著差異,優(yōu)秀組與一般組之間只在運(yùn)動(dòng)能力上差異顯著。國(guó)內(nèi)的相關(guān)研究表明,大學(xué)生運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自尊與身體意象均高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員大學(xué)生,如田錄梅,張向葵和于海峰研究[17]發(fā)現(xiàn),大學(xué)生運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自尊與整體自尊水平均顯著高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員;鄭中中[18]運(yùn)用修訂的多維自我身體關(guān)系問卷(Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire,MBSRQ),對(duì)體育專業(yè)大學(xué)生與藝術(shù)專業(yè)大學(xué)生的身體意象進(jìn)行了比較,發(fā)現(xiàn)體育專業(yè)大學(xué)生身體意象優(yōu)于藝術(shù)專業(yè)。
而關(guān)于運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我的性別差異,多數(shù)研究[12][14]也發(fā)現(xiàn)可靠差異,但也有少量研究報(bào)告性別差異不可靠,如鐘伯光,姒剛彥和劉皓運(yùn)用PSDQ對(duì)我國(guó)大陸與香港兩地的運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自我觀念進(jìn)行了考查,發(fā)現(xiàn)兩地運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我觀念性別差異不可靠;鐘伯光等人還比較了不同運(yùn)動(dòng)項(xiàng)目(體能主導(dǎo)類與技能主導(dǎo)類)運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我的差異,發(fā)現(xiàn)項(xiàng)目差異可靠,體能主導(dǎo)類項(xiàng)目運(yùn)動(dòng)員在身體活動(dòng)和耐力上高于技能類運(yùn)動(dòng)員[19]。金濤[20]運(yùn)用PSPP對(duì)體育專業(yè)不同運(yùn)動(dòng)專項(xiàng)大學(xué)生的身體自我進(jìn)行調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn),相對(duì)于性別差異,運(yùn)動(dòng)專項(xiàng)對(duì)于身體自我各維度差異的解釋力更高。
目前有大量的研究探討了運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自尊、身體意象、身體不滿、社會(huì)軀體焦慮與進(jìn)食障礙、物質(zhì)濫用等之間的關(guān)系。
2.1元分析研究
截止2013年6月至少有3項(xiàng)元分析研究[21-23]對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我與體像障礙、進(jìn)食障礙等病理問題的關(guān)系進(jìn)行了定量綜述。
其中Hausenblas和Carron[21]在1999年共分析了92項(xiàng)運(yùn)動(dòng)員(包括男、女)與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員進(jìn)食障礙(暴食癥、厭食癥、求瘦動(dòng)機(jī))的比較研究(N=10 878),產(chǎn)生了560個(gè)效果量,其最終總效果量為0.12,雖然較低但可靠,表明與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員相比,運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙指數(shù)稍高。
而2000年Smolak等人[22]對(duì)34項(xiàng)關(guān)于女性運(yùn)動(dòng)員進(jìn)食障礙的研究進(jìn)行了元分析,共有2 459名女運(yùn)動(dòng)員以及8 858名非運(yùn)動(dòng)員參與者。研究結(jié)果顯示,女運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員,總效果量為0.07(z=2.98,p<0.01);但就身體不滿而言,運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體不滿水平要低于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員(d=-0.31,z= -7.78,p<0.001)。這一結(jié)論得到了2001年Hausenblas和Downs[23]另一項(xiàng)元分析研究的呼應(yīng),他們考查了74項(xiàng)關(guān)于運(yùn)動(dòng)員(包括男、女)與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體意象障礙研究的294個(gè)效果量,也發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體意象比非運(yùn)動(dòng)員積極,總效果量為-0.27(SD =.25,n=294,p<0.05)。其研究結(jié)論是,運(yùn)動(dòng)員的體像障礙低于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員。
2.2近期研究報(bào)告
近期的一些研究[24-27]也有類似的發(fā)現(xiàn),其中Robinson和Ferrado研究發(fā)現(xiàn)游泳、徑賽、高爾夫、排球項(xiàng)目的女運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體不滿低于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員。Mosewich等人[28]在訪談了8位田徑女運(yùn)動(dòng)員之后認(rèn)為女性運(yùn)動(dòng)員處于矛盾當(dāng)中:專項(xiàng)要求肌肉力量,社會(huì)審美卻追求骨感,運(yùn)動(dòng)員在運(yùn)動(dòng)情景下報(bào)告的多為積極的情緒與積極的身體意象,但在其他社會(huì)情景下報(bào)告了消極的身體意象與更多的適應(yīng)不良行為如進(jìn)食障礙等。
研究還發(fā)現(xiàn)身體不滿是運(yùn)動(dòng)員(尤其是女運(yùn)動(dòng)員)進(jìn)食障礙的首要預(yù)測(cè)因素[29-31]。女運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體不滿可解釋暴食癥狀的24%[32],身體自尊預(yù)測(cè)進(jìn)食障礙的54.6%風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[33];認(rèn)為自己超重的運(yùn)動(dòng)員表現(xiàn)出更高完美主義、更高的社會(huì)軀體焦慮、更高的進(jìn)食障礙[34]。對(duì)目前體型不滿的男運(yùn)動(dòng)員花更多的時(shí)間去進(jìn)行體重訓(xùn)練、存在更多的物質(zhì)濫用和進(jìn)食問題[35]。
總結(jié)3項(xiàng)元分析以及最近的研究報(bào)告可以發(fā)現(xiàn):就進(jìn)食障礙來看,運(yùn)動(dòng)員的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)稍高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員,但就身體意象而言,與非運(yùn)動(dòng)員相比,運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體滿意度稍高,身體意象障礙水平稍低。因此從某種意義上說參與運(yùn)動(dòng)增加了風(fēng)險(xiǎn),但同時(shí)又提供了保護(hù)。但就目前的研究來看,即使發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體滿意度高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員,但也不能回答到底是有著積極身體意象的個(gè)體更傾向于選擇參與運(yùn)動(dòng),抑或是個(gè)體在運(yùn)動(dòng)中發(fā)展了積極的身體意象,對(duì)于這個(gè)問題的解答需要進(jìn)行連續(xù)追蹤的縱向研究。
2.3第三變量
以上的元分析以及其相關(guān)研究提示,運(yùn)動(dòng)參與與進(jìn)食障礙等問題行為之間存在一些重要的影響因素即第三變量。
性別:不少研究如Yates等人[36]對(duì)跑步、自行車、和劃船運(yùn)動(dòng)員的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)女運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高于男運(yùn)動(dòng)員,但之前Hausenblas等人的元分析發(fā)現(xiàn)男運(yùn)動(dòng)員與男非運(yùn)動(dòng)員進(jìn)食障礙差異的效果量(ES= 0.27,SD=0.28,n=67)可靠地(L(1)=5.00,P<0.05)高于女運(yùn)動(dòng)員與女非運(yùn)動(dòng)員差異的效果量(ES =0.08,SD=0.23,n=328)。這一元分析結(jié)果與一些研究[37],尤其是與實(shí)際發(fā)病率是矛盾的,因?yàn)閷?shí)際生活中約90%的進(jìn)食障礙患者為女性[38],原因可能是測(cè)量方法差異,也可能是進(jìn)食障礙應(yīng)對(duì)的性別差異,或者僅僅是因?yàn)閷?duì)男性此類問題的忽視以致缺乏詳細(xì)的了解,因?yàn)楫吘乖谶@一元分析的92項(xiàng)原始研究報(bào)告中只有16.9%研究中參與者有男性運(yùn)動(dòng)員。但在Hausenblas等人隨后的那項(xiàng)元分析中,女性運(yùn)動(dòng)員與女性非運(yùn)動(dòng)員的體像障礙差異效果量為ES=-0.36,男性運(yùn)動(dòng)員與男性非運(yùn)動(dòng)員的差異效果量為ES= -0.31,效果量之間的性別差異不可靠,這一元分析中同樣只有少量(19%)的研究包括男運(yùn)動(dòng)員。而且最近不少研究支持了這樣的觀點(diǎn):男性運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)并不低于甚至高于女性運(yùn)動(dòng)員[39-41]。
年齡:在Hausenblas和Downs體像障礙比較的元分析中,各年齡組(年齡<18歲組、18-22歲組、>22歲組)效果量均可靠,但差異不可靠。Mary等人的研究[37]比較了中學(xué)生與大學(xué)生運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn),發(fā)現(xiàn)女性運(yùn)動(dòng)員高于男性,身體不滿與自尊是大學(xué)生進(jìn)食障礙的重要原因,而身體不滿與鍛煉行為是中學(xué)生進(jìn)食障礙的主要原因。
運(yùn)動(dòng)類型:在Hausenblas等人的2項(xiàng)元分析研究中,都將運(yùn)動(dòng)項(xiàng)目分為難美項(xiàng)目、耐力和球類項(xiàng)目,發(fā)現(xiàn)項(xiàng)目之間的差異都不可靠。但Smolak等人在元分析中對(duì)原運(yùn)動(dòng)項(xiàng)目進(jìn)行了比較,認(rèn)為強(qiáng)調(diào)瘦或苗條的運(yùn)動(dòng)項(xiàng)目會(huì)增加風(fēng)險(xiǎn),尤其是舞蹈類項(xiàng)目。
競(jìng)技水平:在Hausenblas等人的第一項(xiàng)體像障礙的元分析中,運(yùn)動(dòng)員按照大學(xué)運(yùn)動(dòng)員、優(yōu)秀運(yùn)動(dòng)員、青少年/中學(xué)生運(yùn)動(dòng)員、俱樂部/休閑運(yùn)動(dòng)員進(jìn)行分組,發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體意象均比非運(yùn)動(dòng)員對(duì)照組積極(ES= -0.13--0.41),效果量均可靠,且大學(xué)與俱樂部/休閑組組的差異可靠,其他組差異不可靠。同樣Smolak等人也發(fā)現(xiàn)優(yōu)秀運(yùn)動(dòng)員有更高的進(jìn)食障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。
運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我的研究,除了發(fā)展問題研究較少之外,結(jié)構(gòu)、測(cè)量、差異以及關(guān)系問題均有研究。眾多研究比較一致的發(fā)現(xiàn)是:運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我結(jié)構(gòu)類似于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員,運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自我的運(yùn)動(dòng)能力優(yōu)于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員;運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)稍高于非運(yùn)動(dòng)員,體像障礙風(fēng)險(xiǎn)比非運(yùn)動(dòng)員稍低,效果量雖低但均可靠,但因?yàn)槿鄙龠B續(xù)追蹤的縱向研究,因此仍不能做出參與競(jìng)技運(yùn)動(dòng)對(duì)身體自我是一種保險(xiǎn)(或是一種風(fēng)險(xiǎn))的斷論。對(duì)第三變量的討論提示:性別、年齡、運(yùn)動(dòng)類型、競(jìng)技水平是探討運(yùn)動(dòng)參與與運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我關(guān)系的重要第三變量,而對(duì)體型有要求項(xiàng)目的優(yōu)秀運(yùn)動(dòng)員存在高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。
以往研究缺少對(duì)男性運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我的關(guān)注,如Hausenblas等人的2項(xiàng)元分析中只有不到20%的研究報(bào)告包括男運(yùn)動(dòng)員;而近年來越來越多關(guān)注男性身體自我的研究提示,男運(yùn)動(dòng)員也處在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)中,只是風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的類型可能有別于女運(yùn)動(dòng)員。如有研究提示性別與運(yùn)動(dòng)有關(guān)的進(jìn)食障礙特殊類型之間存在交互作用[42,43],女性多發(fā)女運(yùn)動(dòng)員三聯(lián)癥(Female Athlete Triad,F(xiàn)AT)與運(yùn)動(dòng)性厭食(Anorexia Athletic,AA);而男性運(yùn)動(dòng)員多發(fā)鍛煉依賴與肌肉嗜癮癥(Muscle Dysmorphia,MD),因此今后此類研究應(yīng)考慮更有針對(duì)性對(duì)具體問題進(jìn)行測(cè)量與分析。
雖然運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙問題受到研究者的關(guān)注,其研究數(shù)量也較豐富,但缺少縱向研究和干預(yù)研究。首例干預(yù)研究是Piran在1999年對(duì)芭蕾舞選手進(jìn)行的[44]。而2008年,Buchholz等人針對(duì)62名體操運(yùn)動(dòng)員進(jìn)行的為期3個(gè)月干預(yù)研究效果很有限[45]。由于運(yùn)動(dòng)員、教練員亦即家長(zhǎng)等普遍認(rèn)為控制體型有助于運(yùn)動(dòng)成績(jī)提高[45,46],因此對(duì)于運(yùn)動(dòng)員的進(jìn)食障礙等問題進(jìn)行干預(yù),應(yīng)如進(jìn)食障礙研究領(lǐng)域?qū)<宜ㄗh的那樣[47,48],從多方面來改變環(huán)境,即干預(yù)實(shí)施應(yīng)考慮將教練、裁判、管理者、父母、運(yùn)動(dòng)員包括在內(nèi),從而達(dá)到預(yù)期效果。
通過綜述可以看出,目前運(yùn)動(dòng)員身體自我的研究方法也比較單一,多數(shù)研究采用了問卷測(cè)量,少數(shù)幾項(xiàng)研究使用了訪談法,其他方法如實(shí)驗(yàn)更少見。每種研究方法都各有長(zhǎng)短,如問卷調(diào)查可以同時(shí)施測(cè)于大量的運(yùn)動(dòng)員,但卻只有訪談法才可以對(duì)處在運(yùn)動(dòng)任務(wù)壓力與社會(huì)性審美壓力中運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體體驗(yàn)、沖突和自我調(diào)節(jié)進(jìn)行深刻的了解。因此今后的研究應(yīng)考慮綜合運(yùn)用不同的方法來考查運(yùn)動(dòng)員的身體自我。
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Risk or Protection——A Synthetic Review of Athlete′s Physical Self Research
CHEN Li1,2,ZHANG Li-wei1
(1.Beijing Sport University,Beijing 100084;2.Jilin Normal University,Siping Jilin 136000)
To promote the related health behaviors,themeta-analysis studies and research reports of the athletes′physical self are reviewed,finding that the structures of athletes′physical self are similar to those of non-athlete population′s.PSDQ,PSPP are also reliable and valid for athletes′samples.Athletes are more positive than non-athletes in body competence dimensions.Meta-analysis studies have found that athletes appear to bemore at risk in eating disorders but to be less in body image disturbance than non-athletes.Genders,ages,disciplines,competitive levels are important variables thatmediate andmoderate the links between sport participation and physical self.
athletes;physical self;body esteem;body image
G804.8
:A
:1001-9154(2014)02-0065-05
G804.8
A
1001-9154(2014)02-0065-05
陳荔(1977-),女,湖南永州人,講師,在讀博士生,研究方向:自我觀念。
2013-06-21