谷海潔
(清華大學(xué) 經(jīng)濟(jì)管理學(xué)院,北京 100084)
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國外女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究:基于發(fā)展階段的綜述①
谷海潔
(清華大學(xué) 經(jīng)濟(jì)管理學(xué)院,北京 100084)
整理并綜述了發(fā)表于國外有影響力的期刊和會議的,創(chuàng)業(yè)、管理、社會、女性和心理等領(lǐng)域的文獻(xiàn),回顧了女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的發(fā)展脈絡(luò),并將之分為種子期、萌芽期、早期發(fā)展期和中期發(fā)展期。對已有研究進(jìn)行了反思,并展望了未來的研究方向。
女性創(chuàng)業(yè);發(fā)展階段;文獻(xiàn)綜述
創(chuàng)業(yè)對一國的經(jīng)濟(jì)增長和就業(yè)增加具有重要的推動作用,這已是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家和管理學(xué)家的共識[1-6]。一些學(xué)者熱衷于識別創(chuàng)業(yè)者的特質(zhì),將創(chuàng)業(yè)者看作一個(gè)獨(dú)特群體,并給予極高的贊美和評價(jià)[1-2]。在他們眼里,創(chuàng)業(yè)者們富有創(chuàng)新精神[2,7]、偏好冒險(xiǎn)[1]、善于抓住機(jī)會[8-9],在自己建立的“王國”中是勇敢、無畏、決斷的“國王”[2]。
然而,不論是傳統(tǒng)行業(yè)中的鋼鐵、汽車和建筑等行業(yè),還是現(xiàn)代的生物制藥、IT和互聯(lián)網(wǎng)等行業(yè),各行業(yè)中男性創(chuàng)業(yè)者更加活躍。一般提起創(chuàng)業(yè)者,大部分人會直覺地將之想象為男性[10]。
創(chuàng)業(yè)研究最早興起于20世紀(jì)早期[1-2],當(dāng)時(shí)絕大多數(shù)創(chuàng)業(yè)者是男性*直到20世紀(jì)70年代,美國僅有4.6%的企業(yè)為女性所有(The State of Small Business,1987)。,創(chuàng)業(yè)在基因上似乎就是一個(gè)男性領(lǐng)域[5]。學(xué)者們的研究對象、抽樣樣本也以男性為主,絕大多數(shù)有關(guān)創(chuàng)業(yè)的研究對象、成果和知識都來自以男性創(chuàng)業(yè)者為主的樣本群體,形成了一種“男性化”的分析框架[5-6,11-14]。由于女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者群體出現(xiàn)較晚,因此女性在歷史上被摒棄于大部分創(chuàng)業(yè)文獻(xiàn)之外[10]。
最早的女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究可追溯至20世紀(jì)70年代[16-17]的美國。與整個(gè)管理學(xué)科的產(chǎn)生和發(fā)展一樣,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究同樣深受當(dāng)時(shí)社會背景的影響,與女性在經(jīng)濟(jì)社會中的地位和比重緊密相關(guān)。20世紀(jì)80年代后,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究開始快速發(fā)展。
本文回顧國外已有的女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究,并將之劃分為四個(gè)發(fā)展階段,對女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的發(fā)展提出反思,并展望未來的發(fā)展方向。
1.1 第一階段: 種子期(1975—1976年)——提出一個(gè)新的研究領(lǐng)域
早期女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究聚焦于描述女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的個(gè)體特征和公司特征[18]。Schrier[16]經(jīng)統(tǒng)計(jì)發(fā)現(xiàn),除行業(yè)選擇外,男性創(chuàng)業(yè)者與女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者具有很多相同點(diǎn),但有女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者遭受過歧視。Schwartz[17]調(diào)查了20個(gè)女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的個(gè)人特征、動機(jī)和態(tài)度,發(fā)現(xiàn)其創(chuàng)業(yè)動機(jī)主要是成就、工作滿意度、經(jīng)濟(jì)回報(bào)和獨(dú)立性,與同期男性創(chuàng)業(yè)動機(jī)的研究結(jié)論相同。然而,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)的話題并未立刻引起其他學(xué)者的興趣,之后幾年未出現(xiàn)類似研究。
1.2 第二階段: 萌芽期(20世紀(jì)80年代)——?jiǎng)?chuàng)業(yè)觀察
1981年Hisrich、Brush和O’Brien等發(fā)起了一系列針對女創(chuàng)業(yè)者的調(diào)查,標(biāo)志著女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究進(jìn)入萌芽期。但此階段的研究依然不活躍,1981—1989年創(chuàng)業(yè)學(xué)相關(guān)期刊中只有30余篇以女性創(chuàng)業(yè)為關(guān)鍵詞的文獻(xiàn)[18]。
萌芽期的女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究描述了女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的個(gè)體特征。描述性研究是新興研究領(lǐng)域建立過程中的必要一步[19]。學(xué)者們從某個(gè)或多個(gè)視角觀察創(chuàng)業(yè)特征、創(chuàng)建圖景,可稱之為“創(chuàng)業(yè)觀察”,其基本主題包括個(gè)人特征、行業(yè)選擇、進(jìn)入障礙、企業(yè)成長和績效等。這些文獻(xiàn)研究類似問題,采取類似的問卷和研究方法[20],同時(shí)將樣本擴(kuò)展到不同國家、地區(qū)和行業(yè)等。此階段的大部分研究結(jié)論是類似的,但有時(shí)也會有沖突[18]。
女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的個(gè)人特征與男性類似[21-22],但女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者開創(chuàng)的企業(yè)多屬于零售業(yè)、酒店業(yè)和服務(wù)業(yè)[23]。信用的缺乏使得女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者普遍遇到融資困難[21-23]。有些學(xué)者認(rèn)為,這可能是因?yàn)槠髽I(yè)本身[21-22]或女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者缺乏財(cái)務(wù)和會計(jì)知識[23-24]而受到非性別歧視的結(jié)果。Buttner和Rosen經(jīng)調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn),貸款機(jī)構(gòu)對女性存在偏見[25],但是信貸員在評價(jià)計(jì)劃時(shí)沒有男女偏見[26]。教育對女性創(chuàng)業(yè)具有重大意義,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的受教育程度更高,但多接受的是文學(xué)藝術(shù)領(lǐng)域的教育,缺乏財(cái)務(wù)、商科和技術(shù)領(lǐng)域的培訓(xùn)[23]。女性擁有的企業(yè)的組織結(jié)構(gòu)更可能是非正式的[27]。同時(shí),女性表現(xiàn)出典型的關(guān)系性和合作性,在做決策時(shí)依據(jù)客觀情況并考慮各種關(guān)系[28]。
較大規(guī)模的調(diào)研結(jié)果顯示了婚姻和家庭對女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的重要性[23]。其中,Scott[29]將“玻璃天花板”和“靈活地照顧家庭”因素引入“動機(jī)”調(diào)查問卷,發(fā)現(xiàn)男性創(chuàng)業(yè)是為了成為自己的老板,而女性創(chuàng)業(yè)是為了個(gè)人挑戰(zhàn)和滿意度。Cromie[30]發(fā)現(xiàn)了男女創(chuàng)業(yè)動機(jī)的差別。Kaplan[31]發(fā)現(xiàn),女性創(chuàng)業(yè)動機(jī)與年齡和所處環(huán)境有關(guān)。在不同的社會體中,女性都曾被定義為家庭主婦,負(fù)責(zé)養(yǎng)育孩子、承擔(dān)各種家庭責(zé)任[32]。履行家庭責(zé)任可以部分地解釋女性所擁有公司的低利潤率問題[33]。早期“家庭對創(chuàng)業(yè)影響”研究的對象囊括男性和女性[34],后來演變?yōu)榕詫僭掝}。
20世紀(jì)80年代末期,學(xué)者們開始考察現(xiàn)象背后的因果關(guān)系,以社會網(wǎng)絡(luò)等作為研究的新視角[32]。Gartner[35]指出,關(guān)注“誰是創(chuàng)業(yè)者”的個(gè)人特質(zhì)研究不利于創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的開展,是錯(cuò)誤的研究問題。Brush[13]也批評多數(shù)研究僅停留在簡單的比例統(tǒng)計(jì)上,只用性別來解釋,缺少變量與因素間關(guān)系的檢驗(yàn)以及系統(tǒng)性理論框架的建立,并呼吁收集、整理更穩(wěn)健的數(shù)據(jù)集、采用更復(fù)雜的統(tǒng)計(jì)技術(shù)[36]。
由此,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究向更廣闊的天地深入發(fā)展。
1.3 第三階段: 早期發(fā)展(20世紀(jì)90年代—21世紀(jì)初)——變量及變量間關(guān)系
可將整個(gè)20世紀(jì)90年代稱為發(fā)展早期。在這一時(shí)期,學(xué)者們正式建立了一個(gè)管理學(xué)和創(chuàng)業(yè)學(xué)研究分支領(lǐng)域。
在通過描述性統(tǒng)計(jì)勾畫了女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的行為和環(huán)境后,學(xué)者們開始挖掘現(xiàn)象背后的相關(guān)關(guān)系和因果關(guān)系。典型的研究發(fā)展思路是: 在上一階段發(fā)現(xiàn)了女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的績效比男性創(chuàng)業(yè)者差,在這一階段關(guān)注“什么因素導(dǎo)致差異”。創(chuàng)業(yè)觀察還在繼續(xù),但不再是研究重點(diǎn),研究重點(diǎn)或是其他國家[37-40],或是新的現(xiàn)象和特殊的群體,如女性創(chuàng)業(yè)輔導(dǎo)項(xiàng)目[41-42]、大學(xué)生群體[43]、黑人女性[44]、農(nóng)村女性[45]等。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),各國女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的教育程度、關(guān)注焦點(diǎn)和經(jīng)驗(yàn)情況是類似的[37]。
創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的基本問題是研究并回答為何一些企業(yè)比另一些企業(yè)成功[12],女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究延續(xù)了業(yè)績導(dǎo)向的研究方法[6]。績效與性別的關(guān)系成為重要課題: 性別是否影響績效;若是,什么因素導(dǎo)致性別間的績效差異。其他的重要問題包括: 動機(jī)和影響因素;社會角色和家庭因素的影響;影響女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者戰(zhàn)略選擇的因素;創(chuàng)業(yè)融資問題;女性特有的管理模式、技巧和組織風(fēng)格等。這些研究因研究主題有差別而不同,分流繪制了整個(gè)女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的圖景。
對于男女創(chuàng)業(yè)者在財(cái)務(wù)績效和規(guī)模上存在的差異[12,46-49],學(xué)者們從戰(zhàn)略選擇[12,47,50]、動機(jī)[40]、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)偏好[12]、經(jīng)驗(yàn)[23]和資源限制[51-52]等方面進(jìn)行解釋。企業(yè)主的戰(zhàn)略選擇會影響企業(yè)的成長和績效,創(chuàng)業(yè)時(shí)的選擇往往與個(gè)人的社會經(jīng)驗(yàn)有關(guān),而男女基于社會經(jīng)驗(yàn)所塑造的獨(dú)特能力不同,因此女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的企業(yè)在創(chuàng)業(yè)初期的規(guī)模較小、資源較少、失敗的可能性更高[50]。與意圖和選擇相比,能否得到財(cái)務(wù)資源對規(guī)模的影響大得多[51]。
女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的戰(zhàn)略選擇受到企業(yè)效能、職業(yè)預(yù)期和個(gè)人背景的影響[48,53]。女性多在零售業(yè)和服務(wù)業(yè)創(chuàng)業(yè),男性創(chuàng)業(yè)者涉足的典型行業(yè)有建筑業(yè)、制造業(yè)和高科技行業(yè)[48,54-55]。學(xué)者們引入Bandura的社會學(xué)習(xí)理論,用“自我效能”構(gòu)念解釋兩性的行業(yè)選擇差異[48]。對女性的傳統(tǒng)社會定位會影響創(chuàng)業(yè)類型、創(chuàng)業(yè)資本獲得和女性企業(yè)主的管理技巧和經(jīng)驗(yàn)[56]。
女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者與男性創(chuàng)業(yè)在管理和經(jīng)營方面有差異[57]。與男性創(chuàng)業(yè)者相比,女企業(yè)主在經(jīng)營中更強(qiáng)調(diào)產(chǎn)品品質(zhì),較少關(guān)注客戶化和降低成本[46]。不僅女性領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)和組織風(fēng)格與男性不同[58],而且其創(chuàng)建新組織的過程和方式也與男性不同[27,59]。女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者更強(qiáng)調(diào)合作[60-61]和人際關(guān)系[61-62],采取更加民主的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)風(fēng)格[62],在決策時(shí)會收集大量信息并讓更多人參與[57,59,63]。
有些女企業(yè)主稱遭受過信貸歧視[52,64],但學(xué)者們的研究成果不一致。有些學(xué)者認(rèn)為,女性缺乏財(cái)務(wù)知識、經(jīng)驗(yàn)和信用,或女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的企業(yè)規(guī)模較小,這些無法令貸款人感受到其具有足夠的償還能力[65-67]。Haynes和Haynes[68]采用美國小企業(yè)金融調(diào)查數(shù)據(jù),發(fā)現(xiàn)女性從家庭和朋友處借款的利息率更高。Coleman[67]發(fā)現(xiàn),信貸機(jī)構(gòu)要求女性提供更有價(jià)值的抵押物并收取更高利息——但這是對規(guī)模而非性別的歧視。McKechnie、Ennew和Read[69]對比了具有類似情況的企業(yè),發(fā)現(xiàn)女性要求的貸款額稍大,因此付出的利息略高。
家庭對女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者具有重大意義。一方面,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的資本更多來自家庭積蓄、親屬和朋友的借貸,家人的支持對其創(chuàng)業(yè)至關(guān)重要[68];另一方面,很多女性的創(chuàng)業(yè)動機(jī)是為了獲得自由和靈活[70],以便能負(fù)擔(dān)家庭和工作的雙重責(zé)任[29,39]。如果丈夫是創(chuàng)業(yè)者,那么妻子是創(chuàng)業(yè)者的可能性要高。這可能是因?yàn)檎煞蚩商峁┴?cái)務(wù)和知識支持,而妻子需要靈活地安排時(shí)間[49,70-71]。Schiller和Crewson[72]發(fā)現(xiàn),角色模型和婚姻都正向影響女性創(chuàng)業(yè),教育和經(jīng)驗(yàn)與女性創(chuàng)業(yè)負(fù)相關(guān),但正向影響女性創(chuàng)業(yè)績效。角色需求對家庭和工作的時(shí)間分配起調(diào)節(jié)作用[73],而自我雇用的時(shí)間靈活性可能給女性增加了額外負(fù)擔(dān)[74]。
性別對創(chuàng)業(yè)意味什么?早期的社會學(xué)習(xí)經(jīng)驗(yàn)與職業(yè)選擇有關(guān),男性比女性具有更高的創(chuàng)業(yè)偏好在很大程度上因?yàn)榍罢叩淖晕倚芎推谕礁遊75-76]。男女創(chuàng)業(yè)者的相似度大于與他們與同性經(jīng)理人的相似度[77]。工作-家庭聯(lián)系與經(jīng)濟(jì)成功的關(guān)系對于男女創(chuàng)業(yè)者而言都是相似的[78],但是女性更易受到角色沖突的困擾[78-80]。男性從其配偶處得到的支持遠(yuǎn)多于女性[81]。
在研究不斷進(jìn)展的同時(shí),學(xué)者們也會反思不足。主要批評包括: 基于個(gè)人特征的研究難以得到獨(dú)一無二的結(jié)論[82];缺乏理論基礎(chǔ),女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究應(yīng)同時(shí)考慮到工作和生活[5,13]、歷史和文化因素[83];使用男性創(chuàng)業(yè)的理論基礎(chǔ)和衡量方法[5,36];基于性別特殊性的研究,缺乏女性主義分析框架[5-6,10]。
在學(xué)者們的努力下,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究進(jìn)入了新的階段。
1.4 第四階段: 中期發(fā)展(21世紀(jì)至今)——變量關(guān)系及理論構(gòu)建
Bird和Brush[5]、Ahl[6]以及Calás、Smircich和Bourne[15]的研究代表了該階段女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的方向?!芭灾髁x”等理論被引入研究,使研究脫離了描述和簡單分析、具有更廣泛的社會及心理學(xué)背景,從而有效拓寬了女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的范圍,賦予了創(chuàng)業(yè)研究以新的視野。
Bird和Brush從創(chuàng)業(yè)研究起源著手,指出已有的創(chuàng)業(yè)研究文獻(xiàn)大多基于“男性化”性別框架,因此有必要加入“女性化”的視角,建立一種更為平衡的觀點(diǎn)。基于女性主義理論和榮格心理學(xué),她們構(gòu)建了“個(gè)人層次的性別成熟”和“企業(yè)層次的性別平衡”構(gòu)念。她們在gender而非sex的層次上討論了女性化(feminine)對創(chuàng)業(yè)者和創(chuàng)業(yè)組織的影響*在引用其他文獻(xiàn)的案例分析時(shí),實(shí)際上混用了gender和sex。。吸收認(rèn)知和道德發(fā)展理論,作者從女性主義的視角分析了創(chuàng)業(yè)過程的5個(gè)方面、新組織的4個(gè)要素,對比了傳統(tǒng)/男性化觀點(diǎn)和個(gè)人/女性化觀點(diǎn),認(rèn)為新創(chuàng)公司應(yīng)同時(shí)兼具傳統(tǒng)/男性化(traditional/masculine attribute)特征和個(gè)人/女性化特征(personal/feminine attribute)。越是早期的公司越可能具備女性化特征,越是晚期的公司越可能向傳統(tǒng)公司靠攏。只有成熟的創(chuàng)業(yè)者才能建立兩性平衡的企業(yè)。若僅從男性化的觀點(diǎn)出發(fā)觀察新創(chuàng)企業(yè)的發(fā)展過程,則可能會損失結(jié)構(gòu)有效性。
Ahl將學(xué)者們對女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的反思推向新的深度。Ahl首先回顧了女性主義理論的發(fā)展,討論了性別的社會意義,然后從“詞源學(xué)”的角度驗(yàn)證了“創(chuàng)業(yè)”的男性化基礎(chǔ)和傾向,提出了一系列有關(guān)女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的漫談(discursive practice),認(rèn)為創(chuàng)業(yè)研究存在性別偏差,女性被定位于“不足的”或“不完備”的男人,盡管大部分研究假設(shè)男女創(chuàng)業(yè)者擁有企業(yè)的績效是有差別的,但是只有極少研究發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者的差別是顯著的。她提出,“采用女性主義理論作為分析框架,闡述這種次要地位帶來的副產(chǎn)品”,克服研究的理論性不足。Ahl特別提出突破客觀主義的研究方法,因?yàn)榭陀^主義具有限制性——將性別作為個(gè)體特征之一,男人或女人的某些本質(zhì)可被度量或作為解釋變量,忽略了性別構(gòu)成過程中社會和文化的角色。2006年后,ET&P上幾乎所有的女性創(chuàng)業(yè)文獻(xiàn)都引用了此文。
Calás、Smircich和Bourne以Shane和Venkataraman強(qiáng)調(diào)機(jī)會的創(chuàng)業(yè)定義著手,認(rèn)為現(xiàn)有的創(chuàng)業(yè)研究將創(chuàng)業(yè)活動限制為經(jīng)濟(jì)現(xiàn)象,簡化并縮小了創(chuàng)業(yè)現(xiàn)象的影響。創(chuàng)業(yè)過程(entrepreneuring)的本質(zhì)上是社會變化的一個(gè)過程。女性主義理論的形成與社會變化相關(guān),因此可用來解釋和分析創(chuàng)業(yè)現(xiàn)象。她們用自由女性主義理論和后結(jié)構(gòu)主義女性主義理論重新解構(gòu)了女性創(chuàng)業(yè)文獻(xiàn)中的案例,指出應(yīng)考察女性創(chuàng)業(yè)對女性獲得平等機(jī)會的影響,分析了女性創(chuàng)業(yè)的機(jī)會平等、成功標(biāo)準(zhǔn)以及創(chuàng)新、創(chuàng)業(yè)與性別的交互影響,語言和知識的性別影響、微創(chuàng)業(yè)與消除貧苦,認(rèn)為從女性主義的觀點(diǎn)出發(fā),在創(chuàng)業(yè)實(shí)踐中發(fā)揚(yáng)女性的不同之處可能是一個(gè)理想的規(guī)范,也是女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的目的。這個(gè)話題包括: 在實(shí)踐中如何操作;對傳統(tǒng)公司的性別構(gòu)成有何影響;組織風(fēng)格可能怎樣影響工作/家庭問題;那些給女性打開創(chuàng)業(yè)機(jī)會的項(xiàng)目或方法是否幫助或阻礙了平等權(quán)利的獲得;創(chuàng)業(yè)是否已跨越了性別邊界等。
除此之外,上一階段的研究方法還在繼續(xù),多數(shù)研究還是描述性的[84]。女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究者們在動機(jī)和意圖、戰(zhàn)略選擇和管理風(fēng)格、制度和政策、投融資、社會網(wǎng)絡(luò)、家庭、創(chuàng)業(yè)績效、合法性、機(jī)會識別等方面取得了更多成果[85-91]。創(chuàng)業(yè)觀察依然活躍,或聚焦于轉(zhuǎn)型經(jīng)濟(jì)背景[92],或進(jìn)行多國對比[93]、或針對美國以外的其他發(fā)達(dá)國家[94-96]、黑人女性[97-98]、中小企業(yè)[96,99]。但是,男女創(chuàng)業(yè)者的對比研究沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者在創(chuàng)新和戰(zhàn)略上存在顯著差異[100],只是女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的受教育程度更高、男性創(chuàng)業(yè)者更愿意擴(kuò)大公司規(guī)模[96]。
近年來,學(xué)者們對女性創(chuàng)業(yè)的研究興趣增大,糾正了創(chuàng)業(yè)研究對女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的忽略。同時(shí),相關(guān)研究活動發(fā)展迅速[101],與女性創(chuàng)業(yè)有關(guān)的學(xué)術(shù)會議、特刊、全球創(chuàng)業(yè)觀察(GEM)報(bào)告、書籍、合集等的數(shù)量也大幅增加[102]。研究女性創(chuàng)業(yè)的學(xué)者很多是女性(如Ahl、Bird、Brush、Calás和Hughes等)。這一方面顯示了自我意識覺醒,另一方面表明女性創(chuàng)業(yè)未完全進(jìn)入主流。針對目前的研究情況,對當(dāng)前女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的反思主要包括:
第一,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究跟隨創(chuàng)業(yè)研究假設(shè),將女性創(chuàng)業(yè)看作單純的經(jīng)濟(jì)行為,忽略了創(chuàng)業(yè)的社會背景因素和社會學(xué)意義[103]。
第二,當(dāng)前研究過多關(guān)注創(chuàng)業(yè)者的個(gè)人特征,存在個(gè)人主義導(dǎo)向,忽視了創(chuàng)業(yè)的背景、歷史和性別權(quán)力結(jié)構(gòu),將女性創(chuàng)業(yè)面臨的問題歸于個(gè)人而非社會,很少提及女性主義觀點(diǎn)[104]。此外,當(dāng)前研究常用定量分析方法,不僅研究發(fā)現(xiàn)平均差,而且從個(gè)人層面而非社會或制度層面解釋現(xiàn)象。
第三,當(dāng)前研究傾向于將女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者看作一個(gè)整體,缺乏在國家、區(qū)域、文化背景下進(jìn)行異質(zhì)性對比研究。
第四,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究未跟隨創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的熱點(diǎn)問題——如機(jī)會識別、認(rèn)知、決策模型、規(guī)范和社會環(huán)境對創(chuàng)業(yè)的影響、公司創(chuàng)業(yè),在某種程度上游離于主流研究領(lǐng)域之外。
女性創(chuàng)業(yè)理論可用于研究創(chuàng)業(yè)學(xué)中的任何話題,并具備天然的社會學(xué)視角。不論在理論上還是實(shí)踐上,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)研究都吸收和兼容了管理學(xué)、社會學(xué)、心理學(xué)等多個(gè)學(xué)科的知識和理論,超越了創(chuàng)業(yè)研究,具有廣泛的研究空間和前景。
根據(jù)已有研究及其不足,本文主要提出以下可能的研究方向:
第一,跟隨創(chuàng)業(yè)學(xué)的熱點(diǎn)問題,從性別角度進(jìn)行分析和反思其中的機(jī)制。
第二,從女性主義理論的視角,發(fā)展新的有趣話題。
(1) 女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者的創(chuàng)業(yè)合法性。女性不像男性那樣經(jīng)常作為創(chuàng)業(yè)者角色而存在,更難建立和傳遞合法信號,其合法性問題包含社會層次的制度、經(jīng)濟(jì)和文化信息,并受家庭因素和個(gè)人經(jīng)歷的影響。受傳統(tǒng)女性角色的影響,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者需要在上述三個(gè)層次上確立自己的合法性。
(2) 創(chuàng)業(yè)對性別權(quán)力結(jié)構(gòu)的影響。這是創(chuàng)業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)問題。從后結(jié)構(gòu)主義女性主義理論出發(fā),性別是動態(tài)的過程,可以研究創(chuàng)業(yè)對性別塑造和女性經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會地位和權(quán)力的影響,以及男女組織和管理團(tuán)隊(duì)對組織的影響等。
(3) 性別(gender)和生理性別(biological sex)。從心理學(xué)和后解構(gòu)主義女性主義理論出發(fā),需要在研究性別對創(chuàng)業(yè)的影響中區(qū)分gender和biological sex,進(jìn)而研究個(gè)人和組織層次的性別構(gòu)成和成熟過程。
(4) 以女性方式的成功。這一主題新穎且有趣。一些女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者未墨守男性規(guī)范,以獨(dú)有方式獲得了成功。其背后是市場環(huán)境的變化,女性是重要的消費(fèi)主體和市場構(gòu)成部分。在理解女性消費(fèi)者的習(xí)慣方面,女性創(chuàng)業(yè)者擁有天然的優(yōu)勢。
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Foreign Research on Female Entrepreneurship:Review Based on Development Stage
Gu Haijie
(School of Economics & Management,Tsinghua University,Beijing 100084,China)
This paper provides a comprehensive literature review on female entrepreneurship based on the academic journals and conferences in the fields of entrepreneurship,management,sociology and psychology.And it unfolds the development stages of female entrepreneurship research which is divided into seed stage,germination stage,early development and mid-term development stage.Finally,it points out the limitation and the future research direction of female entrepreneurship.
female entrepreneurship;development stage;literature review
谷海潔(1971— ),女,陜西人,清華大學(xué)經(jīng)濟(jì)管理學(xué)院博士研究生,研究方向: 創(chuàng)業(yè)管理。
F270
A
創(chuàng)新與創(chuàng)業(yè)管理2015年2期