王騰騰,張錦明,張 濤,柳 曦,周乃康
解放軍總醫(yī)院 胸外科,北京 100853
PET小分子凋亡顯像示蹤劑的研究進(jìn)展
王騰騰,張錦明,張 濤,柳 曦,周乃康
解放軍總醫(yī)院 胸外科,北京 100853
凋亡是細(xì)胞的程序化死亡過程。研究表明,小分子凋亡顯像示蹤劑可以幫助臨床醫(yī)師早期診斷疾病、檢測疾病的進(jìn)展、治療后早期評估療效、協(xié)助開發(fā)新的治療方案、指導(dǎo)腫瘤個體化治療。雖然臨床上迫切期望一種理想的小分子凋亡顯像PET示蹤劑問世,但是一直未能實(shí)現(xiàn),主要是因?yàn)榕R床應(yīng)用的苛刻要求,包括對凋亡細(xì)胞的檢測具有較高特異度和靈敏度、合理的生物學(xué)分布、藥物的安全性、與放射性標(biāo)記物的兼容性、常規(guī)PET設(shè)備的顯像等。目前小分子凋亡顯像PET示蹤劑主要分為3類:顯示凋亡蛋白活性的示蹤劑、檢測線粒體跨膜電位破壞的示蹤劑和反應(yīng)膜改變印記的示蹤劑。
凋亡顯像;小分子探針;正電子發(fā)射斷層顯像術(shù)
細(xì)胞凋亡不是隨機(jī)、混亂的細(xì)胞死亡,而是程序化、有規(guī)律的生物學(xué)過程。許多因素可以促發(fā)細(xì)胞凋亡,包括生理性和病理性的。細(xì)胞發(fā)生凋亡時首先轉(zhuǎn)變成成簇的膜包裹的顆粒(凋亡小體),然后被巨噬細(xì)胞吞噬[1-2]。細(xì)胞凋亡主要途徑:1)線粒體途徑:線粒體膜滲透性改變,不可逆的膜去極化,導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞色素C釋放,并激活凋亡蛋白酶(Caspases)系統(tǒng);2)死亡受體途經(jīng):許多配體(腫瘤壞死因子、壞死因子相關(guān)的凋亡誘導(dǎo)配體、FAS配體)與細(xì)胞膜上的死亡受體結(jié)合,通過信號傳導(dǎo)激活Caspases系統(tǒng)。能夠標(biāo)記到凋亡細(xì)胞的示蹤劑可以幫助早期診斷疾病、監(jiān)視疾病進(jìn)展、評估治療效果。一個好的臨床凋亡顯像示蹤劑應(yīng)該集成多種特征:1)對凋亡細(xì)胞具有較高的靈敏性和特異性:能夠早期檢測出凋亡細(xì)胞,并能區(qū)分凋亡細(xì)胞與壞死細(xì)胞;2)有效性:靜脈注射后能夠充分、快速地分布到全身,檢測出機(jī)體的凋亡細(xì)胞,并在非靶向目標(biāo)器官快速清除,具有良好的信背比;3)安全性:無毒,不引起免疫反應(yīng);4)穩(wěn)定性:在機(jī)體內(nèi)很少被代謝掉[3];5)與常規(guī)臨床PET具有兼容性。本文對應(yīng)用于凋亡細(xì)胞顯像的PET示蹤劑的發(fā)展及實(shí)驗(yàn)研究予以綜述。
2002年,Belhocline等[4]率先將99mTc標(biāo)記的Annexin-V的衍生物在活體內(nèi)進(jìn)行實(shí)驗(yàn)。之后,Tait[5]的研究報(bào)道,99mTc-annexin-V凋亡顯像示蹤劑在多種疾病中應(yīng)用具有很好的可行性和潛在的臨床價值,如99mTc-annexin-V被應(yīng)用到一些心血管疾病,包括心肌梗死、動脈粥樣硬化[6],還被用來監(jiān)測肺部腫瘤的治療效果[7]。Annexin-V是目前應(yīng)用最廣泛的凋亡細(xì)胞直接結(jié)合劑,它能結(jié)合凋亡細(xì)胞膜表面的磷脂酰絲氨酸,其優(yōu)點(diǎn)是對凋亡細(xì)胞具有較高的親和力,并連接多個熒光基團(tuán),直接螯合99mTc。但是,這些研究也提出了這種蛋白質(zhì)分子顯像的局限性:在特異性方面,Annexin-V通過已破壞細(xì)胞膜偶聯(lián)到細(xì)胞內(nèi)的磷脂酰絲氨酸,標(biāo)記的既有凋亡細(xì)胞又有壞死細(xì)胞;在生物學(xué)分布方面,Annexin-V在非靶向器官清除時間較長,且由于Annexin-V是大分子結(jié)構(gòu),信背比相對較低[1]。
除此之外,PET成像的Annexin-V的放射性標(biāo)記物也在嘗試。18F半衰期為110 min,因半衰期短而被廣泛應(yīng)用于PET顯像。但是,由于Annexin-V擁有大量的功能基團(tuán),直接利用18F標(biāo)記會破壞這些功能基團(tuán),因而采用先標(biāo)記功能基團(tuán)外的一些基團(tuán)的方法,如N-琥珀酰4-18F苯甲酸,從而形成Annexin-V的衍生物[8]。雖然這種方法能夠獲得良好的標(biāo)記率,但是放射性標(biāo)記和示蹤劑的純化過程復(fù)雜、耗時長、成本高,不適合應(yīng)用于常規(guī)臨床檢測。為了適應(yīng)半衰期較長的放射性標(biāo)記物和解決Annexin-V較慢的清除率,選擇一些除18F以外的放射性同位素,如64Cu和124I(半衰期分別是12.7 h,4.2 d)[9]。但是這些同位素半衰期過長,在臨床上使用的難度大。
Caspases在細(xì)胞凋亡線粒體途徑和死亡受體途徑中都發(fā)揮著極其重要的作用[10-11]。最近基于靛紅磺胺基團(tuán)的新型Caspases抑制劑有很大進(jìn)展,此類化合物是一種非肽類Caspases抑制劑,細(xì)胞內(nèi)Caspases活化后,該試劑的二羰基能共價結(jié)合位于Caspases活性中心的半胱氨酸殘基,起到拮抗Caspases的作用。這類的化合物多用11C或18F標(biāo)記,比如18F-ICMT 11,18F-caspase,11C-WC-98,18F-WCIV-3。PET顯像實(shí)驗(yàn)已經(jīng)證實(shí),18F-ICMT 11的攝取與細(xì)胞凋亡呈正相關(guān),然而腹部器官對該示蹤劑的非特異性攝取也較高,腫瘤部位攝取與腹部器官對比度不高,在臨床應(yīng)用時特異性受到影響[12-14]。多個研究表明,在順鉑誘導(dǎo)的體外腫瘤細(xì)胞凋亡模型中發(fā)現(xiàn),11C-WC-98、18F-WC-IV-3對凋亡細(xì)胞具有高親和力[15-17]。Zhou等[15]發(fā)現(xiàn),在放線菌酮anti-Fas抗體誘導(dǎo)的肝細(xì)胞凋亡模型中,酶學(xué)測定顯示Caspases類示蹤劑在凋亡細(xì)胞中呈累積性攝取。該類示蹤劑最大的缺點(diǎn)是在活體中對Caspases的親和力明顯下降,只有高濃度的此類示蹤劑才能抑制Caspases[18]。這種現(xiàn)象可能與靛紅的二碳基非特異性化學(xué)反應(yīng)有關(guān)。
有研究將同位素標(biāo)記到電壓敏感的探針上,如18F芐基三苯基陽離子(18F-FBnTP)用來檢測線粒體跨膜電位消失。活體細(xì)胞線粒體內(nèi)膜的電質(zhì)子梯度使得陽離子流向線粒體基質(zhì),這種梯度在凋亡早期就被破壞,示蹤劑攝取量也隨之下降。因此,這種示蹤劑在檢測細(xì)胞凋亡時顯示的信號是減弱的,而其他類的示蹤劑是增強(qiáng)的。實(shí)驗(yàn)研究表明,在體外星形孢菌素誘導(dǎo)的肺癌細(xì)胞凋亡的模型和紫杉醇誘導(dǎo)的乳腺癌細(xì)胞模型中,小鼠多西紫杉醇誘導(dǎo)的前列腺腫瘤凋亡模型,18F-FBnTP攝取量顯著減少[19-20],這是因?yàn)榈蛲黾?xì)胞內(nèi)的線粒體有限,逐漸被破壞,有效靶點(diǎn)減少,攝取值也會下降。但在某些活體細(xì)胞利用多耐藥蛋白將這類示蹤劑排到細(xì)胞外,凋亡顯像提示信號下降,可能會將這類細(xì)胞誤診為凋亡細(xì)胞。Madar等[21-22]的研究表明,18FFBnTP在線粒體密度分布高的器官(心臟和腎)攝取速率快速減慢,信號也隨之減少,顯像效果較好,而在低代謝器官中的顯像效果不佳。
反應(yīng)膜改變印記發(fā)生在細(xì)胞凋亡早期。該印記包括不可逆的質(zhì)膜電位破壞,部分外質(zhì)膜和細(xì)胞液永久被酸化,細(xì)胞膜磷脂酶系統(tǒng)被激活。這些特征性變化能夠?qū)⒄<?xì)胞或壞死細(xì)胞區(qū)分開來[23]。多種該類示蹤劑被研制出來,如DDC、ML-10、ML-9、NST-732、NST-729,在多種凋亡模型中表現(xiàn)出較好的效果。比如抗癌藥物誘導(dǎo)的腫瘤細(xì)胞凋亡模型、腎衰竭模型、缺血性腦卒中模型、神經(jīng)變性的疾病模型[24-28]。Zeng等[29]報(bào)道了NST-732的衍生物丹磺酰肼被18F標(biāo)記后在體外實(shí)驗(yàn)中能夠檢測化療誘導(dǎo)的腫瘤細(xì)胞凋亡。18F-ML-10是一種相對分子量為206的化合物。能夠選擇性地被凋亡細(xì)胞攝取,這與線粒體跨膜電位破壞、Caspases激活、DNA水解等凋亡印記有關(guān)[23]。18F-ML-10是第1個被應(yīng)用于臨床階段的示蹤劑,在小規(guī)模的臨床試驗(yàn)中表現(xiàn)出滿意的結(jié)果。Ⅰ期臨床試驗(yàn)中,18F-ML-10顯示出良好的穩(wěn)定性和生物學(xué)分布以及安全的劑量范圍。Ⅱ期臨床試驗(yàn)中,應(yīng)用18F-ML-10監(jiān)測缺血性腦卒中患者的血管神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡,在CT檢查中得到了驗(yàn)證;惡性腫瘤腦轉(zhuǎn)移行全腦放射治療后[30],應(yīng)用18F-ML-10可提供治療后效果,這種效果在兩個月后的MRI檢查提示的解剖學(xué)上的變化相匹配。該示蹤劑的更多臨床試驗(yàn)正在進(jìn)一步開展。
凋亡顯像在過去的十年經(jīng)歷了快速發(fā)展,利用PET成像的示蹤劑也隨之有了較快的發(fā)展。這些革命性的創(chuàng)新從直接偶聯(lián)磷脂酰絲氨酸、Annexin-V為代表的蛋白質(zhì)探針,跨越到能夠探測凋亡級聯(lián)反應(yīng)中某一環(huán)節(jié)的小分子示蹤劑。凋亡事件的復(fù)雜性和臨床實(shí)踐的安全性也對新型的小分子示蹤劑提出了更嚴(yán)苛的要求。與此同時,在顯像設(shè)備、PET同位素標(biāo)記技術(shù)、PET信號定量數(shù)字分析領(lǐng)域也都有了長足的進(jìn)步。我們相信通過多學(xué)科、多領(lǐng)域的共同合作能夠成功地研制出一系列無創(chuàng)、安全、有效的在臨床廣泛應(yīng)用的示蹤劑。
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Advances in small molecule radiotracer for PET imaging apoptosis
WANG Tengteng, ZHANG Jinming, ZHANG Tao, LIU Xi, ZHOU Naikang
Department of Thoracic Surgery, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
ZHANG Jinming. Email: zhangjm301@163.com; ZHOU Naikang. Email: znklip@sina.com
Apoptosis is a controlled program of cell death. So far, several studies have shown that small molecule apoptosis imaging tracers can help clinicians in early diagnosis of diseases, detection of disease development, early assessment of the efficacy of treatment and development of new treatment options. However, there is no ideal tracer of small molecule apoptosis imaging at present, the desirable small-molecule apoptosis imaging PET tracer should have the following characteristics: high specificity and sensitivity in detection of apoptotic cells, favorable biodistribution and safe profiles in vivo, compatible with radioactive markers and normal imaging of clinical PET. For different targets during apoptosis, currently, small molecule apoptosis imaging PET tracers are mainly divided into three categories: PET probes for caspase activation, PET probes for detection of collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential and PET probes for detection of apoptotic membrane imprint.
apoptosis imaging; molecular probes; positron-emission tomography
R 445
A
2095-5227(2015)06-0637-03
10.3969/j.issn.2095-5227.2015.06.032
時間:2015-04-09 17:13
http://www.cnki.net/kcms/detail/11.3275.R.20150409.1713.002.html
2015-01-30
國家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(81371593)
Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(81371593)
王騰騰,男,在讀博士。研究方向:PET示蹤劑。Email: wtwangteng@126.com
張錦明,男,博士,研究員。Email: zhangjm301@163. com;周乃康,男,主任醫(yī)師,教授。Email:znklip@sina.com