德國城市雨水利用技術(shù)考察分析

李俊奇，車武

被引頻次：269

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·高被引論文摘要·

德國城市雨水利用技術(shù)考察分析

李俊奇，車武

被引頻次：269

對(duì)近年來德國城市雨水利用的幾種主要形式：雨水集蓄利用系統(tǒng)、雨水屋頂花園利用系統(tǒng)、雨水截污與滲透系統(tǒng)、生態(tài)小區(qū)雨水利用系統(tǒng)作了總結(jié)和分析，結(jié)合國情提出了我國城市雨水利用與管理的一些建議。

雨水利用；城市雨水；德國

來源出版物：城市環(huán)境與城市生態(tài)， 2002， 15（1）： 47-49

北京城區(qū)屋面雨水污染及利用研究

車武，汪慧珍，任超，等

被引頻次：239

摘要：對(duì)北京城區(qū)屋面雨水水質(zhì)做了大量分析測(cè)定，發(fā)現(xiàn)屋面徑流尤其初期徑流污染很嚴(yán)重。分析了屋面材料、氣溫、降雨量、降雨強(qiáng)度、降雨時(shí)間及空氣污染等因素對(duì)水質(zhì)的影響。通過研究，討論了北京城區(qū)屋面雨水的利用方案。

關(guān)鍵詞：屋面徑流；雨水污染；雨水利用

來源出版物：中國給水排水， 2001， 17（6）： 57-61

從第十屆國際雨水利用大會(huì)看城市雨水利用的現(xiàn)狀與趨勢(shì)

車武，李俊奇

被引頻次：136

摘要：基于北京市城區(qū)雨水利用技術(shù)的研究和第十屆國際雨水收集利用大會(huì)的交流，從標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化、產(chǎn)業(yè)化、國際化、集成技術(shù)、法規(guī)和政策、綜合性技術(shù)等6個(gè)方面對(duì)國內(nèi)外城市雨水利用的現(xiàn)狀與趨勢(shì)進(jìn)行了論述與分析，并指出目前存在的8個(gè)方面的主要問題。

關(guān)鍵詞：城市雨水利用；產(chǎn)業(yè)化；標(biāo)準(zhǔn)；法規(guī)；北京市

來源出版物：給水排水， 2002， 28（3）： 12-14

城市雨水利用方案設(shè)計(jì)與技術(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)分析

李俊奇，車武，孟光輝，等

被引頻次：132

摘要：城市雨水處置與利用有多種方式。結(jié)合北京城區(qū)某新建小區(qū)設(shè)計(jì)了直接排放，滲透管滲透+排放，高花壇+低綠地+淺溝、滲透渠滲透，中水利用+淺溝滲透4種雨水處置與利用方案，并對(duì)各方案進(jìn)行了技術(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)分析和比較。

關(guān)鍵詞：雨水利用；雨水滲透；方案設(shè)計(jì)；技術(shù)經(jīng)濟(jì)分析

來源出版物：給水排水， 2001， 27（12）： 25-28

雨水資源集蓄利用研究綜述

劉小勇，吳普特

被引頻次：126

摘要：由于干旱、人口增長(zhǎng)、地表水地下水污染等問題，人們對(duì)雨水資源的開發(fā)利用產(chǎn)生了極大的興趣并進(jìn)行了廣泛的研究，而且已初步顯示出雨水資源開發(fā)利用的巨大潛力。文中對(duì)雨水的匯集、蓄存、利用技術(shù)，雨水利用對(duì)區(qū)域環(huán)境的影響，雨水資源的評(píng)價(jià)，雨水利用的效益評(píng)估等方面的最新研究進(jìn)行了全面的分析總結(jié)，同時(shí)，提出了目前研究中亟待解決的問題。

關(guān)鍵詞：雨水匯集；雨水利用；區(qū)域環(huán)境；雨水資源評(píng)價(jià)；效益評(píng)估

來源出版物：自然資源學(xué)報(bào)， 2000， 15（2）： 189-193

國外城市雨水資源利用管理體系的比較及啟示

程江，徐啟新，楊凱，等

被引頻次：108

摘要：通過對(duì)德國、美國和日本等國雨水資源利用管理體系的比較，得到構(gòu)建我國雨水資源利用管理體系，發(fā)揮雨水資源的生態(tài)環(huán)境功能等4點(diǎn)啟示：①制定全國性的法律法規(guī)，保障雨水資源的利用；②扶持雨水利用技術(shù)開發(fā)，促進(jìn)雨水資源利用；③建立經(jīng)濟(jì)杠桿調(diào)控制度，激勵(lì)雨水資源利用；④建立統(tǒng)一職能管理部門，規(guī)范雨水資源利用。

關(guān)鍵詞：城市雨水資源；雨水利用；理體系

來源出版物：中國給水排水， 2007， 23（12）： 68-72

生態(tài)住宅小區(qū)雨水利用與水景觀系統(tǒng)案例分析

李俊奇，章北平

被引頻次：94

摘要：以某住宅小區(qū)為例，進(jìn)行雨水利用和水景觀系統(tǒng)的方案設(shè)計(jì)，根據(jù)水量平衡計(jì)算，充分利用小區(qū)匯集的雨水作為綠化和景觀用水；并充分考慮雨水徑流的污染和小區(qū)水體的水質(zhì)，合理地設(shè)計(jì)雨水的截污、凈化和景觀湖的水循環(huán)與水質(zhì)保障措施。強(qiáng)調(diào)系統(tǒng)和生態(tài)學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)。

關(guān)鍵詞：生態(tài)；住宅小區(qū)；雨水利用；水景觀系統(tǒng)

來源出版物：城市環(huán)境與城市生態(tài)， 2002， 15（5）： 34-36

國內(nèi)外城市雨水利用研究

王彥梅

被引頻次：77

摘要：城市雨水利用是解決城市水資源短缺、減少城市洪災(zāi)、改善城市生態(tài)環(huán)境的重要舉措。介紹了國內(nèi)外城市雨水利用情況，并展望了雨水利用的發(fā)展前景。

關(guān)鍵詞：城市雨水利用；水資源；發(fā)展前景

來源出版物：安徽農(nóng)業(yè)科學(xué)， 2007， 35（8）： 2384-2385

綠水及其研究進(jìn)展

程國棟，趙文智

被引頻次：72

摘要：從水循環(huán)的角度分析，全球尺度上總降水的65%通過森林、草地、濕地和雨養(yǎng)農(nóng)田的蒸散返回到大氣中，成為綠水流（綠水），僅有35%的降水儲(chǔ)存于河流、湖泊以及含水層中，成為藍(lán)水。目前的水資源評(píng)價(jià)多集中于可見的、可以被人類直接利用的藍(lán)水資源，忽略了綠水資源的評(píng)價(jià)和管理。綠水最初被定義為蒸散流，是流向大氣圈的水汽流，后來被定義為具體的資源，即綠水是源于降水、存儲(chǔ)于土壤并通過植被蒸散發(fā)消耗掉的水資源，尤其在雨養(yǎng)農(nóng)業(yè)區(qū)是重要的水資源。介紹了綠水的概念，綠水在陸地生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的作用，綜述了綠水評(píng)價(jià)研究的進(jìn)展、影響綠水流的因素、全球綠水資源狀況和水安全等，展望了未來綠水研究，指出應(yīng)將綠水資源納入水資源評(píng)價(jià)之中，開展綠水管理、綠水和藍(lán)水綜合利用研究，自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)與糧食生產(chǎn)綠水均衡利用研究。

關(guān)鍵詞：綠水評(píng)價(jià)；綠水管理；水安全

來源出版物：地球科學(xué)進(jìn)展， 2006， 21（3）： 221-227

被引頻次：61

我國部分城市的雨水利用規(guī)劃現(xiàn)狀及存在問題

張占龍，羅辭勇，何為

摘要：在城市水資源緊缺以及城市雨水利用技術(shù)快速發(fā)展的背景下，提出編制雨水利用規(guī)劃的必要性及其現(xiàn)實(shí)意義。在簡(jiǎn)要分析我國城市雨水利用規(guī)劃現(xiàn)狀的基礎(chǔ)上，探討了現(xiàn)階段城市雨水利用規(guī)劃中存在的一些問題，并針對(duì)這些亟待解決的問題提出了一些建議。

關(guān)鍵詞：城市雨水利用；雨水利用規(guī)劃；雨水綜合利用

來源出版物：中國給水排水， 2007， 23（22）： 1-5

State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination

Fritzmann， C； Lowenberg， J； Wintgens， T； et al.

被引頻次：486

來源出版物：Desalination， 2007， 216（1-3）： 1-76

Urbanization of aquatic systems: Degradation thresholds， stormwater detection， and the limits of mitigation

Booth， DB； Jackson， CR

被引頻次：396

Abstract: Urbanization of a watershed degrades both theform and the function of the downstream aquatic system，causing c hanges t hat can oc cur r apidly a nd are very difficult to avoid or correct. A variety of physical data from lowland streams in western Washington displays the onset of r eadily o bservable aq uatic-system degradation a t a remarkably consistent l evel of development， typically about ten percent effective impervious area in a watershed. Even lower levels of urban development cause significant degradation in sensitive water bodies and a reduced， but less w ell qu antified， level o f f unction throughout the system as a whole. Unfortunately， established methods of mitigating the downstream impacts of urban development may h ave only lim ited e ffectiveness. Using c ontinuous hydrologic modeling w e ha ve e valuated detention pond s designed b y c onventional e vent methodologies， and our findings d emonstrate serious d eficiencies in actual pond performance when compared to their design goals. Even with b est efforts a t mitigation， t he s heer m agnitude of development activities falling below a level of regulatory concern s uggests t hat i ncreased r esource l ass will invariably a ccompany d evelopment o f a w atershed. Without a better understanding of the critical processes that lead t o degradation， s ome downstream aquatic-system damage is probably inevitable without limiting the extent of watershed development itself.

來源出版物：Journal of the American Water Resources Association， 1997， 33（5）： 1077-1090

Threats to the running water ecosystems of the world

Malmqvist， B； Rundle， S

被引頻次：344

Abstract: Running waters are perhaps the most impacted ecosystem on t he planet as they have been the focus for human s ettlement a nd a re he avily e xploited f or w ater supplies， irrigation， electricity generation， and waste disposal. Lotic systems also have an intimate contact with their catchments and so land-use alterations affect them directly. H ere l ong-term trends i n t he factors t hat currently i mpact r unning w aters are r eviewed w ith the aim of predicting what the main threats to rivers will be in the year 2025. The main ultimate factors forcing change in running waters （ecosystem destruction， physical habitat and water chemistry alteration， and the direct addition or removal of species） stem from proximate influences from urbanization， industry， land-use change and water-course alterations. A ny one r iver i s li kely t o be s ubjected to several types of impact， and the management of impacts on lotic systems is complicated by numerous links between di fferent f orms of a nthropogenic e ffect. L ongterm trends for different impacts vary. Concentrations of chemical pollut ants s uch a s t oxins a nd nut rients ha ve increased in rivers in developed countries over the past century， with recent reductions for some pollutants （e.g. metals， or ganic t oxicants， acidification）， a nd c ontinued increases in others （e.g. nutrients）； there are no long-term chemical data for developing countries. Dam construction increased rapidly during the twentieth century， peaking in the 1970s， a nd t he nu mber of r eservoirs ha s s tabilized since t his t ime， w hereas the t ransfer o f ex otic s pecies between lotic systems continues to increase. Hence， there have been some success stories in the attempts to reduce the im pacts f rom a nthropogenic im pacts i n de veloped nations. Improvements in the pH status of running waters should c ontinue w ith l ower s ulphurous e missions，although emissions of nitrous oxides are set to continue under current legislation and will continue to contribute to acidification and nutrient loadings. Climate change also will im pact r unning w aters t hrough a lterations i n hydrology a nd t hermal r egimes， although pr ecise predictions a re pr oblematic； e ffects a re likely t o va ry between r egions a nd t o ope rate alongside r ather than override those from other impacts. Effects from climate change may be more extreme over longer time scales （＞50 years）. T he ove rriding pr essure on running water ecosystems u p t o 202 5 w ill s tem f rom t he pr edicted increase in the hum an p opulation， w ith c oncomitant increases in urban de velopment， i ndustry， a gricultural activities and water abstraction， diversion and damming. Future degradation could be substantial and rapid （c. 10 years） and will be concentrated in those areas of the world where r esources f or c onservation a re most lim ited a nd knowledge of lotic ecosystems most incomplete； damage will cen tre o n l owland r ivers， w hich ar e al so r elatively poorly s tudied. C hanges in management pr actices a nd public a wareness do a ppear t o be be nefiting r unning water e cosystems in developed c ountries， a nd could underpin conservation strategies in developing countries if they were implemented in a relevant way.

Keywords: streams； rivers； pr edictions； year 2025；anthropogenic disturbances

來源出版物：Environmental Conservation， 2002， 29（2）：134-153

Low impact development practices: A review of current research and recommendations for future directions

Dietz， Michael E

被引頻次：175

Abstract: The low impact development （LID） approach has be en r ecommended a s a n a lternative t o traditional stormwater design. Research on individual LID practices such a s bi oretention， pe rvious pa vements， a nd gr assed swales h as increased i n r ecent years. Bioretention ce lls have been effective in retaining large volumes of runoff and pol lutants on site， a nd c onsistently r educed concentrations of c ertain pol lutants s uch a s metals. However， r etention of certain pol lutants s uch as nitrate-nitrogen a nd phosphorus has be en pr oblematic. Porous pavements have been extremely effective in infiltrating stormwater runoff. Concerns have been raised about groundwater contamination， but research has shown that this is not a problem in most settings. Green roofs have been found to retain a l arge percentage of rainfall （63% o n av erage） i n a v ariety o f cl imates. A co mmon thread across bioretention， green roofs and grassed swales was found： the export of phosphorus. The issue appears to be linked to high phosphorus levels in the soil media， or possibly to fertilization of turf or planted areas. Solutions to t his pr oblem ha ve be en r ecommended. C ontrary to popular belief， research has shown that bioretention and pervious pavements continue to infiltrate even with frost in the ground. Although issues have been identified with retention of certain pollutants， the LID approach has been found to result in increased retention of stormwater and pollutants on site， mimicking pre-development hydrologic function. Future research needs have also been identified.

Keywords: bioretention； green roof； low impact development； pervious pavement

來源出版物：Water Air and Soil Pollution， 2007， 186（1-4）：351-363

Pretreatment for low pressure membranes in water treatment: A review

H Huang； K Schwab； JG Jacangelo

被引頻次：150

Abstract: The a pplication of l ow pr essure membranes（LPMs） to drinking water treatment and wastewater reuse has undergone accelerated development in the past decade. Integration of pretreatment with LPM filtration has been widely employed at full scale to reduce membrane fouling and/or increase the removal of certain aquatic contaminants. In principle， pretreatment of source water can i mpact membrane f iltration i n t hree w ays： a ltering contaminant size distributions， changing mutual affinities of contaminants or their affinities to membrane surfaces，and suppressing undesirable microbial growth or removing biodegradable c ontaminants. T he lit erature s hows t hat，compared to t he w ell-demonstrated e nhancement of contaminant removal， impact of pretreatment to membrane fouling is often small or even negative， which is further complicated by va riations i n s ource w ater qua lity a nd membrane pr operties. Coagulation ha s been t he most successful pretreatment for fouling reduction. Novel technologies are in immediate need for fouling control； ones which rely on a better understanding of the mechanisms of p retreatment a nd L PM filtration a re warranted. T his article provides a critical review of the state-of-the-art of pretreatment for LPMs， and discusses potential areas for future technical development and scientific studies.

來源出版物：Environmental Science & Technology， 2009，43（9）： 3011-3019

Improving agricultural water productivity: Between optimism and caution

Molden， David； Oweis， Theib； Steduto， Pasquale； et al.

被引頻次：134

Abstract: In its broadest sense， water productivity （WP） is the n et r eturn fo r a u nit o f w ater u sed. Im provement o f water productivity aims at producing more food， income，better livelihoods and ecosystem services with less water. There i s co nsiderable s cope f or i mproving water productivity of crop， livestock and fisheries at field through to basin scale. Practices used to achieve this include water harvesting， supplemental i rrigation， d eficit irrigation，precision irrigation techniques and soil-water conservation practices. Practices not directly related to water management impact w ater p roductivity b ecause o f interactive effects such as those derived from improvements i n s oil fertility， pest a nd disease c ontrol，crop selection or access to better markets. However， there are several reasons to be cautious about the scope and ease of a chieving water p roductivity g ains. Crop w ater productivity is a lready qu ite h igh in h ighly pr oductiveregions， and gains in yield （per unit of land area） do no t necessarily translate into gains in water productivity. Reuse of water that takes place within an irrigated area or a basin can compensate for the perceived losses at the field-scale in terms of w ater qu antity， though the w ater qu ality is likely to be affected. While crop breeding has played an important role in increasing water productivity in the past，especially by improving the harvest index， such large gains are n ot easily foreseen i n t he future. M ore im portantly，enabling conditions for farmers and water managers are not in p lace to enhance w ater pr oductivity. Improving w ater productivity w ill thus r equire a n und erstanding of the biophysical as w ell as t he s ocioeconomic e nvironments crossing s cales be tween f ield， farm and b asin. P riority areas where substantive increases in water productivity are possible include： （i） areas where poverty is high and water productivity is l ow， （ii） a reas of ph ysical w ater scarcity where competition for water is high， （iii） areas with little water r esources d evelopment w here h igh returns f rom a little extra water use can make a big difference， and （iv）areas o f w ater-driven ecosystem degradation， s uch a s falling groundwater tables， and river desiccation. However，achieving these gains will be challenging at least， and will require s trategies that c onsider c omplex b iophysical a nd socioeconomic factors.

Keywords: water u se efficiency； pov erty； e nvironment；livestock； fisheries； river basins； agronomy； crop breeding；socioeconomics

來源出版物：Agricultural Water Management， 2010， 97（4）：528-535

Sink or Swim？ Water security for growth and development

Grey， David； Sadoff， Claudia， W

被引頻次：113

Abstract: Achieving basic water security， both harnessing the p roductive p otential o f w ater a nd limiting its destructive impact， has always been a societal priority. To capture this duality， water security is defined here as the availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health， livelihoods， ecosystems and production， coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks to people，environments and economies. This paper looks broadly at those countries that have achieved water security， the paths they chose and the costs they paid， and those countries that have not achieved water security and how this constrains economies and societies. It defines three typologies： countries that have harnessed hydrology， those hampered by hydrology and those that are hostage to hydrology. It finds t hat countries r emaining hostage t o hydrology a re typically among the world’s poorest. They face “difficult”hydrologies of ten characterized b y high inter- and intra-annual rainfall and runoff variability， where the level of institutional and infrastructure investment needed is very high and the ability to invest is low. This paper seeks to capture the d ynamics o f ac hieving w ater security in a hypothetical water and growth “S-curve”， which illustrates how a m inimum p latform o f i nvestments i n water institutions and infrastructure can produce a tipping point beyond w hich w ater makes a n increasingly pos itive contribution to growth and how that tipping point will vary in different c ircumstances. As t here ar e i nevitable trade-offs， achieving water security is never without social and environmental co sts； i n s ome co untries t hese ar e significant， often unforeseen and even unacceptable. This brief analysis suggests that the only historically demonstrated p ath to a chieving w ater security a t the national level has been through investment in an evolving balance of c omplementary institutions a nd infrastructure，but that lessons exist for following this basic path in more sustainable and balanced ways. Insights are provided for balancing a nd s equencing i nvestments， a dapting t o changing v alues and pr iorities， and pu shing down the social and environmental costs. The paper concludes that most w ater-insecure c ountries t oday face f ar greater challenges than those that achieved water security in the last c entury an d ar e w ealthy countries today. T hey f ace more difficult hydrologies and a greater understanding of and therefore g reater r esponsibility f or， the s ocial a nd environment trade-offs inherent in water management. As the costs of poor countries not achieving water security， in terms of hu man suffering， s ustained pove rty， c onstrained growth and social unrest， would be very high， achieving water security is a challenge that must be recognized and must be met.

Keywords: development； growth； m inimum p latform；poverty； S-curve； water； water resources； water security

來源出版物：Water Policy， 2007， 9（6）： 545-571

A review of models for low impact urban stormwater drainage

Elliott， A. H.； Trowsdale， S. A.

被引頻次：109

Abstract: Low-impact d evelopment ur ban stormwaterdrainage systems （LID） are an increasingly popular method to reduce the adverse hydrologic and water quality effects of ur banisation. I n this r eview， ten existing s tormwater models are compared in r elation to a ttributes r elevant to modelling LID. The models are all based on conventional methods for runoff generation and routing， but half of the models add a groundwater/baseflow c omponent a nd several include infiltration from LID devices. The models also use conventional methods for contaminant generation and treatment such as buildup-washoff conceptual models and first order decay processes， although some models add treatment mechanisms specific to particular types of LID device. S everal m odels are c apable of m odelling distributed on-site devices with a fine temporal resolution and continuous simulation， yet the need for such temporal and spatial detail needs to be established. There is a trend towards i ncorporation of m ore ty pes of L ID i nto stormwater models， and some recent models incorporate a wide r ange o f LID d evices o r measures. D espite this progress， t here are m any a reas for further m odel development， many of which relate to stormwater models in general， including： broadening the range of contaminants；improving the r epresentation of c ontaminant transport in streams and w ithin treatment d evices； treating b aseflow components a nd r unoff f rom p ervious s urfaces more thoroughly； linkage to habitat and toxicity models； linkage to automated calibration and prediction uncertainty models；investigating up-scaling f or representation of on-site devices at a catchment level； and catchment scale testing of model predictions.

Keywords: stormwater； catchment； model； review； urban drainage； low impact

來源出版物：Environmental Modelling & Software， 2007，22（3）： 394-405

Biofouling of spiral-wound nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes: A feed spacer problem

Vrouwenvelder， J. S.； von der Schulenburg， D. A. GrafKruithof， J. C.； et al.

被引頻次：105

Abstract: Biofouling w as studied in f ull-scale an d pilot-scale i nstallations， t est-rigs a nd m embrane fouling monitors b y c onventional m ethods as we ll as Magnetic Resonance I maging （MRI）. i ndependent of permeate production， the. feed spacer c hannel pr essure dr op a nd biomass concentration increased similarly in a nanofiltration pilot installation. In the presence of a feed spacer t he absolute f eed c hannel pressure drop i ncrease caused b y b iomass accumulation w as much h igher than when a f eed spacer w as a bsent： in both spiral w ound nanofiltration a nd reverse os mosis s ystems b iofouling is dominantly a feed spacer problem. This conclusion is based on （i） in s itu vi sual o bservations o f the f ouling accumulation， （ii） i n-situ non-destructive observations o f the fouling accumulation and velocity distribution profiles using MRI， and （iii） d ifferences in pr essure dr op a nd biomass d evelopment in monitors w ith and w ithout f eed spacer. MRI studies showed that even a restricted biofilm accumulation on t he feed channel s pacer i nfluenced t he velocity d istribution pr ofile strongly. B iofouling c ontrol should be focused on the development of low fouling feed spacers and hydrodynamic conditions to restrict the impact of biomass accumulation on the feed channel pressure drop increase.

Keywords: feed spacer channel pressure drop； biofouling；NMR； MRI； membrane； flux； hydrodynamic conditions；NF； RO； drinking water

來源出版物：Water Research， 2009，43（3）： 34-47

Non-conventional water resources and opportunities for water augmentation to achieve food security in water scarce countries

Qadir， M.； Sharma， BR； Bruggeman， A

被引頻次：101

Abstract: Given c urrent demographic t rends a nd f uture growth pr ojections， as much a s 60% of the g lobal population may suffer water scarcity by the year 2025. The water-use efficiency techniques us ed w ith c onventional resources h ave b een improved. H owever， w ater-scarce countries w ill ha ve t o rely m ore on t he use of non-conventional water resources to partly alleviate water scarcity. N on-conventional water r esources a re e ither generated a s a pr oduct of s pecialized pr ocesses such as desalination o r ne ed s uitable pr e-use treatment a nd/or appropriate s oil-water-crop m anagement s trategies w hen used f or irrigation. I n w ater-scarce e nvironments， s uch water r esources are a ccessed through the d esalination of seawater and highly brackish groundwater， the harvesting of r ainwater， and the us e of marginal-quality w ater resources for irrigation. The marginal-quality waters used for irrigation consist of wastewater， agricultural drainage water， and groundwater containing different types of salts. in many de veloping c ountries， a major part o f thewastewater g enerated b y domestic， co mmercial， an d industrial sectors is used for crop production in a n untreated or partly treated form. The protection of public health an d t he en vironment ar e t he m ain co ncerns associated with uncontrolled wastewater irrigation. The use of saline and/or sodic drainage water and groundwater for agriculture i s ex pected t o i ncrease. This warrants modifications in t he existing soil， i rrigation， and c rop management pr actices u sed， in or der to cope w ith the increases in s alinity and sodicity that w ill o ccur. I t is evident that w ater-scarce countries ar e not ab le t o m eet their f ood r equirements u sing the conventional and non-conventional w ater r esources available w ithin their boundaries. Another option that may help to achieve food security in these countries is the ‘physical’ transportation of water a nd f ood it ems a cross basins， c ountries， and regions. Long-distance movement of surface freshwater or groundwater and t ransporting t he water i nland via la rge pipelines or ac ross t he sea i n ex tremely l arge bags ar e examples o f ‘physical’ transportation. M ost i nterregional water t ransportation projects a re s till i n t heir i nfancy，though the trade of food items between countries has been going on since international trade began. Although food is imported in the international food trade， the water used to produce the food that is imported into water-scarce countries i s equivalent t o l arge water s avings for t hose countries： without the imports， almost the same amount of water would be needed to produce that food domestically. The t erm ‘virtual w ater’ has been used t o i llustrate t he important role that water plays in the trade in food between countries w ith a w ater surplus and t hose w ith a w ater deficit， which must rely in part on importing food to ensure food security. Because the major food-exporting countries subsidize their agricultural pr oduction s ystems， f oodimporting countries need to consider both the policies and political situations of food-exporting countries， while simultaneously using food trade as a strategic instrument to overcome w ater s carcity and f ood d eficits. This p aper reviews the literature and issues associated with the use of non-conventional w ater r esources and oppor tunities for achieving food security in water-scarce countries.

Keywords: water scarcity； seawater desalination；rainwater harvesting； marginal-quality water； wastewater；saline-sodic water； virtual water； water transportation

來源出版物：Agricultural Water Management， 2007， 87（1）：2-22

Throughout the wor ld， wa ter s carcity is b eing recognised as a present or future threat to human activity and as a c onsequence， a d efinite trend to de velop alternative w ater r esources s uch as de salination c an be observed. The most commonly used desalination technologies a re r everse o smosis （RO） and thermal processes such as multi-stage flash （MSF） and multi-effect distillation （MED）. In Europe， reverse osmosis， due to its lower e nergy consumption h as g ained much w ider acceptance t han its t hermal alternatives. T his review summarises the current state-of-the art of reverse osmosis desalination， d ealing no t on ly w ith the r everse os mosis stage， but with the entire process from raw water intake to post treatment of product water. The discussion of process fundamentals， membranes and membrane modules and of current and future developments in membrane technology is a ccompanied b y an a nalysis of op erational issues a s fouling and scaling and of measures for their prevention such as adequate cleaning procedures and antiscalant use. Special focus is placed on pre-treatment of raw water and post-treatment of brine as well as of product water to meet drinking and irrigation water standards， including evaluation of current boron removal options. Energy requirements of reverse osmosis plants as well as currently applied energy recovery systems for r eduction of energy consumption are described and cost and cost structure of reverse osmosis desalination are outlined. Finally， current practices of waste management and disposal as well as new trends s uch a s the us e o f hy brid pl ants， i.e. c ombining reverse o smosis w ith thermal processes and/or pow er generation are addressed

stormwater management； ur ban h ydrology；hydrograph analysis and modeling