姚荔嘉 鄧 星 王 維 謝渭芬
第二軍醫(yī)大學(xué)附屬長征醫(yī)院消化內(nèi)科(200003)
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·綜述·
肝星狀細(xì)胞在肝臟發(fā)育和再生中作用的研究進(jìn)展*
姚荔嘉#鄧星王維謝渭芬&
第二軍醫(yī)大學(xué)附屬長征醫(yī)院消化內(nèi)科(200003)
摘要肝星狀細(xì)胞(HSCs)是位于肝竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞與肝上皮細(xì)胞之間的一種多能細(xì)胞。HSCs激活后轉(zhuǎn)化為肌成纖維樣細(xì)胞,增殖并上調(diào)部分促炎和促纖維化基因表達(dá),從而促進(jìn)肝纖維化。既往對HSCs的研究主要集中在其與肝纖維化的關(guān)系方面,近年研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在肝臟發(fā)育和再生過程中,HSCs對肝臟細(xì)胞的增殖、分化和成熟亦至關(guān)重要。本文系統(tǒng)總結(jié)了HSCs的來源、發(fā)育調(diào)控和功能,著重闡述近年關(guān)于HSCs在肝臟發(fā)育和再生中作用的研究進(jìn)展,以期為肝臟疾病的治療提供新思路。
關(guān)鍵詞肝星狀細(xì)胞;肝臟;生長和發(fā)育;再生
Research Progress on Role of Hepatic Stellate Cells in Liver Development and Regeneration
YAOLijia,DENGXing,WANGWei,XIEWeifen.
DepartmentofGastroenterology,theSecondMilitaryMedicalUniversityAffiliatedChangzhengHospital,Shanghai(200003) Correspondence to: XIE Weifen, Email: weifenxie@medmail.com.cn
AbstractHepatic stellate cells (HSCs), the pluripotent cells, exist between liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatic epithelial cells. Activated HSCs transform to myofibroblast-like cells, start to proliferate, anddenovoexpress some proinflammatory and profibrogenic genes, which promote hepatic fibrogenesis. Previous studies mainly focused on the relationship between HSCs and liver fibrosis, however, recent studies indicate that HSCs are essential for proliferation, differentiation and maturation of various liver cells in the process of liver development and regeneration. This review systematically summarized the source, developmental regulation and function of HSCs, and focused on progress of recent studies on the role of HSCs in liver development and regeneration. The novel knowledge of HSCs may provide clues for treatment of liver diseases.
Key wordsHepatic Stellate Cells;Liver;Growth and Development;Regeneration
肝星狀細(xì)胞(hepatic stellate cells, HSCs)為肝臟特異性間充質(zhì)細(xì)胞,位于肝竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞與肝上皮細(xì)胞之間的竇周間隙,約占肝臟細(xì)胞總數(shù)的5%~8%。在健康肝臟中,HSCs處于靜止?fàn)顟B(tài),主要功能為儲存維生素A、調(diào)節(jié)肝血流和肝內(nèi)免疫反應(yīng)等。在慢性肝臟疾病中,受損的肝細(xì)胞和免疫細(xì)胞通過分泌信號分子激活HSCs并使之轉(zhuǎn)化為肌成纖維樣細(xì)胞,增殖并上調(diào)部分促炎和促纖維化基因表達(dá),HSCs持續(xù)和反復(fù)激活將導(dǎo)致肝纖維化,產(chǎn)生永久性瘢痕,破壞肝臟正常結(jié)構(gòu)和功能。近期諸多研究發(fā)現(xiàn),除參與肝纖維化外,HSCs在肝臟發(fā)育和再生中亦發(fā)揮重要作用。本文就近年相關(guān)研究進(jìn)展作一綜述,以期為肝臟疾病的治療提供新思路。
一、HSCs概述
1. HSCs的來源:HSCs于19世紀(jì)由Kupffer首次發(fā)現(xiàn)。盡管近數(shù)十年來人們對這一細(xì)胞進(jìn)行了大量研究,但仍未能完全明確其在肝臟中的來源和功能。有學(xué)者發(fā)現(xiàn)HSCs表達(dá)多種神經(jīng)元或神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞標(biāo)記物,如神經(jīng)細(xì)胞黏附分子(neural cell adhesion molecule, NCAM)、突觸素(synaptophysin)、膠質(zhì)原纖維酸性蛋白(glial fibrillary acidic protein, GFAP)、巢蛋白(nestin)、p75神經(jīng)營養(yǎng)因子受體(p75 neurotrophin receptor, p75NTR),因此認(rèn)為HSCs可能起源于外胚層神經(jīng)嵴[1]。但Cassiman等[2]應(yīng)用細(xì)胞譜系示蹤技術(shù)并未在發(fā)育的肝臟中檢測到神經(jīng)嵴來源的HSCs。另有學(xué)者發(fā)現(xiàn)胎肝中存在造血干細(xì)胞標(biāo)記物CD34+和細(xì)胞角蛋白(cytokeratin, CK)7/8+的星狀細(xì)胞,提示HSCs可能來源于內(nèi)胚層[3]。還有研究[4]發(fā)現(xiàn)HSCs表達(dá)間質(zhì)干細(xì)胞標(biāo)記物,且有向脂肪細(xì)胞或骨細(xì)胞分化的潛能,表明HSCs起源于間質(zhì)干細(xì)胞。HSCs,尤其是活化的HSCs能表達(dá)中胚層標(biāo)記物如結(jié)蛋白(desmin)、α-平滑肌肌動蛋白(α-smooth muscle actin, α-SMA),提示其來源于中胚層,Asahina等[5]的研究結(jié)果支持此觀點(diǎn)。此外,部分學(xué)者提出HSCs是由橫膈間皮細(xì)胞遷移發(fā)育而來,Asahina等[6]發(fā)現(xiàn)小鼠中胚層原始橫膈間皮細(xì)胞由肝臟表面向肝內(nèi)遷移,并逐漸分化為HSCs。綜上,HSCs可同時表達(dá)內(nèi)、中、外胚層標(biāo)記物,但其來源迄今仍未完全闡明。
2. HSCs的發(fā)育調(diào)控:目前關(guān)于HSCs發(fā)育調(diào)控的研究報(bào)道相對較少,已有研究表明血管內(nèi)皮生長因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF)信號通路在HSCs分化、遷移進(jìn)入肝臟的過程中發(fā)揮重要作用。Yin等[7]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在HSCs的發(fā)育過程中,抑制VEGF信號能顯著減少遷移進(jìn)入肝臟的HSCs數(shù)量,并嚴(yán)重影響HSCs存活;然而,在HSCs發(fā)育的終末階段,抑制VEGF信號僅能導(dǎo)致HSCs輕度減少。此外,一些發(fā)育相關(guān)基因如Wt1(Wilms tumor 1 homolog)、Lhx2(LIM homeobox protein 2)在維持HSCs的正常發(fā)育中亦起有重要作用。在胚胎發(fā)育過程中敲除Wt1基因可導(dǎo)致HSCs祖細(xì)胞異常分化,進(jìn)而影響HSCs的正常發(fā)育,導(dǎo)致肝臟體積縮小和形態(tài)異常[8];在胚胎中敲除Lhx2基因可引起大量HSCs異常活化,導(dǎo)致與肝纖維化相關(guān)的細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)(extracellular matrix, ECM)進(jìn)行性沉積,影響肝臟發(fā)育[9]。然而,Wt1和Lhx2抑制HSCs異?;罨南掠涡盘柾啡晕搓U明,有待進(jìn)一步研究。
二、HSCs在肝臟發(fā)育中的作用
HSCs在肝臟發(fā)育過程中極為靠近肝上皮細(xì)胞、內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞和造血細(xì)胞,表明其可能參與調(diào)節(jié)這些細(xì)胞的增殖、分化和成熟。胚胎HSCs能表達(dá)生長因子和絲裂原,這些物質(zhì)在肝臟發(fā)育過程中對肝上皮細(xì)胞的增殖至關(guān)重要。在Wt1敲除的胎肝中,HSCs異?;罨?,細(xì)胞內(nèi)催化維甲酸合成的視黃醛脫氫酶2(RALDH2)表達(dá)下調(diào)或缺失,影響肝臟祖細(xì)胞的增殖、擴(kuò)散[8]。另一方面,HSCs在肝臟祖細(xì)胞的分化中亦可能扮演重要角色。Suzuki等[10]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),ECM可影響肝臟祖細(xì)胞分化,在決定肝臟祖細(xì)胞向肝細(xì)胞或膽管細(xì)胞方向分化的過程中,不同ECM組分具有不同效應(yīng)。而HSCs可分泌多種ECM,提示其在肝臟祖細(xì)胞分化中起重要作用。Notch信號通路在肝內(nèi)膽管細(xì)胞的分化和膽管形態(tài)發(fā)生中扮演關(guān)鍵角色[11]。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)門靜脈間質(zhì)中的Notch配體Jagged1失活可導(dǎo)致肝內(nèi)膽管缺失[12],鑒于胎肝門管區(qū)HSCs亦表達(dá)Jagged1[13],推測HSCs的出現(xiàn)和分布可能與肝內(nèi)膽管發(fā)育有關(guān)。進(jìn)一步探索HSCs是否通過Notch信號通路調(diào)節(jié)膽管發(fā)育具有重要意義。
在血管生成過程中,竇周細(xì)胞和竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞之間的相互作用對血管成熟及其完整性至關(guān)重要。在肝臟中,HSCs相當(dāng)于竇周細(xì)胞,通過分泌血小板源性生長因子(platelet-derived growth factor, PDGF)與竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生聯(lián)系,影響肝臟血管結(jié)構(gòu)和功能[14]。在β-catenin敲除小鼠肝臟中,HSCs異?;罨⒕奂跀U(kuò)張的肝竇周圍,這一發(fā)現(xiàn)支持上述觀點(diǎn)[15]。在哺乳動物胚胎發(fā)育過程中,肝臟為主要造血器官。胚胎HSCs表達(dá)的基質(zhì)細(xì)胞衍生因子-1α(stromal cell-derived factor-1α, SDF-1α)是一種強(qiáng)效造血干細(xì)胞化學(xué)誘導(dǎo)劑[16],可募集表達(dá)SDF-1α受體CXCR4的造血干細(xì)胞進(jìn)入胎肝。這些發(fā)現(xiàn)均提示HSCs與肝臟血管發(fā)生有密切聯(lián)系。
三、HSCs在肝臟再生中的作用
肝臟再生為一多步驟過程,包括起始和終止,當(dāng)再生后的肝臟代謝滿足機(jī)體需求時,肝臟即停止再生。轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子-β(transforming growth factor-β, TGF-β)是最重要的促纖維化和抗增殖因子,是肝臟再生反應(yīng)的關(guān)鍵介質(zhì),而HSCs是合成TGF-β的主要細(xì)胞[17]。在大鼠肝臟再生模型的再生早期收集HSCs條件培養(yǎng)基進(jìn)行檢測,可發(fā)現(xiàn)其中含有大量與肝細(xì)胞增殖相關(guān)的細(xì)胞因子和趨化因子,再生起始階段,肝細(xì)胞生長因子(hepatocyte growth factor, HGF)等因子強(qiáng)大的促有絲分裂能力可能超過TGF-β1的抗增殖作用,至再生終末期,HSCs分泌高水平的TGF-β1,抑制肝實(shí)質(zhì)細(xì)胞增殖,甚至誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡[18]。在原代培養(yǎng)的小鼠HSCs中,5-羥色胺(5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)可通過與HSCs上的5-HT2B受體結(jié)合增強(qiáng)TGF-β1表達(dá),而5-HT2B受體拮抗劑則可促進(jìn)肝部分切除術(shù)(partial hepatectomy, PH)、膽管結(jié)扎和CCl4誘導(dǎo)的急慢性肝損傷模型的肝細(xì)胞生長,抑制肝纖維化[19]。因此,HSCs可能通過改變細(xì)胞因子表達(dá)譜調(diào)節(jié)肝臟再生。
HSCs的活化對肝臟再生至關(guān)重要。2-乙酰氨基芴(2-acetylaminofluorene, 2AAF)是一種肝細(xì)胞增殖抑制劑,應(yīng)用2AAF/PH可建立基于肝臟祖細(xì)胞或卵圓細(xì)胞的肝臟再生修復(fù)模型[20]。為證實(shí)活化的HSCs對肝臟再生的重要性,有研究以對乙酰氨基酚或2AAF/PH誘導(dǎo)肝損傷動物模型,再以膠霉毒素[21]或左旋半胱氨酸[22]清除或抑制活化的HSCs,發(fā)現(xiàn)肝細(xì)胞和卵圓細(xì)胞的正常再生反應(yīng)受到抑制,肝損傷加重。Kalinichenko等[23]構(gòu)建了Foxf1+/-小鼠模型,并以CCl4誘導(dǎo)肝損傷,結(jié)果顯示與對照組相比,F(xiàn)oxf1+/-小鼠肝臟修復(fù)和HSCs活化受限,肝損傷持續(xù)加重。上述研究結(jié)果證實(shí)HSCs活化是促進(jìn)受損肝組織修復(fù)的重要環(huán)節(jié)。
活化的HSCs產(chǎn)生大量細(xì)胞因子和趨化因子[24],這些因子可直接增強(qiáng)肝臟祖細(xì)胞和肝細(xì)胞的增殖能力,或間接作用于肝竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞和免疫細(xì)胞,促進(jìn)肝臟再生。Deng等[25]的研究表明,完全活化的HSCs可通過分泌HGF誘導(dǎo)骨髓間質(zhì)干細(xì)胞向類肝細(xì)胞分化。對2AAF/PH大鼠肝損傷模型的研究[18]發(fā)現(xiàn),肝臟再生早期HSCs條件培養(yǎng)基中含有高水平的HGF,可促進(jìn)卵圓細(xì)胞增殖。在人類慢性肝纖維化進(jìn)程中,活化的HSCs表達(dá)p75NTR。研究[26]發(fā)現(xiàn),p75NTR缺失小鼠的HSCs在體外培養(yǎng)時無法正常分化為肌成纖維細(xì)胞,導(dǎo)致HGF合成受損,進(jìn)而影響肝細(xì)胞增殖,使肝臟病變加重。由于p75NTR信號系通過Rho調(diào)節(jié)HSCs分化,因此持續(xù)激活Rho蛋白可恢復(fù)p75NTR-/- HSCs的分化能力。Hedgehog(Hh)信號通路可能是肝臟再生過程中HSCs與肝細(xì)胞間相互作用的另一條途徑?;罨腍SCs可表達(dá)Hh信號通路組分之一——一種名為音猬因子(sonic hedgehog, Shh)的蛋白質(zhì)以及Hh抑制劑Hip,在活化HSCs的培養(yǎng)過程中,Hip表達(dá)減少,Shh表達(dá)增加,后者作為活化HSCs的自分泌生長因子激活Hh信號通路并參與肝臟病理進(jìn)程[27]。在PH誘導(dǎo)的小鼠肝臟再生模型中,肝細(xì)胞中Hh配體產(chǎn)生增加,Hh信號通路活化,可誘導(dǎo)肝細(xì)胞增殖[28]。
除上述路徑外,HSCs還可能作為肝上皮細(xì)胞祖細(xì)胞,在肝臟再生過程中通過間質(zhì)-上皮轉(zhuǎn)換(mesenchymal-epithelial transition)生成肝細(xì)胞。Kordes等[29]將活化的胰腺星狀細(xì)胞(pancreatic stellate cells, PSCs)移植入2AAF/PH誘導(dǎo)的大鼠肝臟再生模型中,發(fā)現(xiàn)PSCs可分化為肝細(xì)胞和膽管細(xì)胞,參與肝臟修復(fù)。后續(xù)研究[30]以2AAF/PH或倒千里光堿(retrorsine)/PH建立大鼠肝臟再生模型并予移植HSCs,結(jié)果顯示移植的HSCs可形成間充質(zhì)組織、祖細(xì)胞、肝細(xì)胞和膽管細(xì)胞,從而促進(jìn)肝臟再生。此外,與正常大鼠相比,該研究使用的純合GUNN大鼠肝細(xì)胞由于缺乏Ugt1a1基因,膽紅素處理功能受損,而移植HSCs可改善模型大鼠的肝臟膽紅素處理功能缺陷,升高血清直接膽紅素水平;體外培養(yǎng)的HSCs在分化為肝細(xì)胞和膽管細(xì)胞的過程中能一過性獲得肝臟祖細(xì)胞基因表達(dá)譜,亦提示HSCs可能為肝臟祖細(xì)胞的來源之一。Michelotti等[31]通過細(xì)胞譜系示蹤技術(shù)發(fā)現(xiàn),HSCs為肌成纖維細(xì)胞和肝臟祖細(xì)胞的來源之一,具有分化成為肝細(xì)胞和膽管細(xì)胞的能力。上述研究均表明HSCs為肝臟前體細(xì)胞的來源之一,且有助于肝臟再生。
四、HSCs研究存在的問題
要充分了解HSCs在肝臟再生中所扮演的角色,在不同肝損傷再生模型中清除HSCs被認(rèn)為是最理想的途徑。既往研究主要是通過一些化學(xué)藥物,如膠霉毒素、左旋半胱氨酸選擇性抑制動物模型中的HSCs,但這些藥物對其他類型肝細(xì)胞的影響尚難以排除。小鼠GFAP啟動子可驅(qū)動單純皰疹病毒胸苷激酶(thymidine kinase, Tk)基因在HSCs中特異性表達(dá)。在GFAP-Tk轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠中,應(yīng)用更昔洛韋可誘導(dǎo)HSCs凋亡[32],但該模型并不能完全清除HSCs,故其應(yīng)用存在局限性。
肝臟再生經(jīng)由哪條信號通路介導(dǎo)取決于初始損傷的性質(zhì)及其嚴(yán)重程度,完善的多樣性動物模型的建立將極大促進(jìn)未來HSCs在肝臟再生中作用的研究。嚙齒類動物模型的優(yōu)勢在于可體外分離、培養(yǎng)和激活HSCs,而斑馬魚(zebra-fish)活體成像技術(shù)適用于研究肝臟再生過程中細(xì)胞間的相互作用。與嚙齒類動物模型一樣,PH和化學(xué)物質(zhì)亦可誘導(dǎo)斑馬魚體內(nèi)的肝臟再生。此外,基因工具的研發(fā)將有助于其他肝臟再生模型的進(jìn)展。然而,由于人體內(nèi)不同病因所誘發(fā)的肝損傷再生及其病程的復(fù)雜性,迄今為止,動物模型仍無法完全模擬人類肝臟再生。
五、結(jié)語與展望
HSCs被稱為肝內(nèi)多能細(xì)胞,參與肝功能活動以及肝臟疾病的發(fā)生、發(fā)展。既往對HSCs的研究主要集中在其與肝纖維化的關(guān)系方面,但多年來以HSCs為靶點(diǎn)治療肝纖維化并未能取得突破性進(jìn)展。近年研究發(fā)現(xiàn)HSCs在肝臟發(fā)育和再生中發(fā)揮重要作用,并初步闡明了HSCs參與肝臟發(fā)育和再生的作用機(jī)制。一系列研究結(jié)果表明HSCs的作用遠(yuǎn)較想象中復(fù)雜,以HSCs為靶點(diǎn)治療肝纖維化,在抑制ECM產(chǎn)生和沉積的同時,可能會影響肝臟再生,提示肝纖維化的治療需要尋求新的思路和方法。此外,考慮到HSCs在肝臟發(fā)育和再生中所起的重要作用,對其作進(jìn)一步探索將極大推進(jìn)肝功能衰竭甚至肝細(xì)胞癌等疾病的治療研究。
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(2016-02-04收稿;2016-02-15修回)
*基金項(xiàng)目:國家自然科學(xué)基金(81470871)
DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1008-7125.2016.03.009
#Email: 386247106@qq.com
&本文通信作者,Email: weifenxie@medmail.com.cn