国产日韩欧美一区二区三区三州_亚洲少妇熟女av_久久久久亚洲av国产精品_波多野结衣网站一区二区_亚洲欧美色片在线91_国产亚洲精品精品国产优播av_日本一区二区三区波多野结衣 _久久国产av不卡

?

艾滋病功能性治愈的研究現(xiàn)狀與挑戰(zhàn)

2016-04-05 21:31:51汪春付孫永濤
實用醫(yī)院臨床雜志 2016年2期
關(guān)鍵詞:儲存庫靜息艾滋病

汪春付,孫永濤

(第四軍醫(yī)大學附屬唐都醫(yī)院傳染科,陜西 西安 710038)

艾滋病功能性治愈的研究現(xiàn)狀與挑戰(zhàn)

汪春付,孫永濤

(第四軍醫(yī)大學附屬唐都醫(yī)院傳染科,陜西 西安 710038)

“柏林患者”的報道,使功能性治愈迅速成為艾滋病研究熱點和治療新目標。然而HIV潛伏在病毒儲存庫中,HAART無法徹底清除病毒,治愈艾滋病仍困難重重。隨著人們對HIV 潛伏機制的了解,針對病毒儲存庫的研究逐漸深入,部分已從基礎(chǔ)研究走向臨床試驗,從而離艾滋病功能性治愈的目標更近一步。

艾滋病;功能性治愈;研究進展

高效抗反轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒治療(Highly active antiretroviral therapy,HAART)可有效抑制人免疫缺陷病毒(Human immunodeficiency virus,HIV)復制,極大改善了艾滋病患者預(yù)后,使艾滋病成為一種可控制的慢性病毒感染性疾病[1]。HIV在人體中可與宿主基因整合,潛伏在細胞及組織器官中[2~4],形成病毒儲存庫。HAART僅能抑制病毒復制而無法清除病毒儲存庫[5],停藥后病毒儲存庫中潛伏的病毒可重新激活[6]?!鞍亓只颊摺敝委煶晒橹斡滩√峁┝怂悸穂7],針對HIV儲存庫的研究迅速成為熱點,也使功能性治愈,即既能有效控制HIV感染者體內(nèi)病毒,又可維持CD4+T淋巴細胞的數(shù)量和功能,成為治療艾滋病的新目標[8]。目前可能實現(xiàn)艾滋病功能性治愈的方法和挑戰(zhàn)包括:

1 早期治療和強化治療

HAART可有效控制HIV復制,減少病毒對人體免疫系統(tǒng)的侵犯。早期治療不僅可更好維持患者機體免疫功能,也可減少體內(nèi)病毒儲存庫大小,使停藥后獲得更長的病毒控制期[9]。急性期啟動抗病毒治療的HIV感染者中,15%的患者在停藥后HIV-RNA仍控制在檢測線以下,這一比例高于“精英控制者”在普通人群中比例[10]。為更有效降低HIV-RNA和細胞內(nèi)HIV-DNA,有學者嘗試在原有三聯(lián)抗病毒治療基礎(chǔ)上加用另外一類抗病毒藥物。Pere Z[22]報道HAART聯(lián)合CCR5拮抗劑馬拉維諾的強化治療可以減少記憶性T淋巴細胞潛伏病毒庫大小。然而早期啟動HAART后一旦中斷,絕大多數(shù)患者仍將出現(xiàn)病毒反彈[11]?!懊芪魑鞅葖雰骸盵12]功能性治愈的失敗使人們重新審視早期治療對治愈艾滋病的重要性。因人體血腦屏障等生理結(jié)構(gòu)的原因,絕大多數(shù)抗病毒藥物難以到達中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng),強化治療未能顯著降低消化道HIV-DNA[13]和腦脊液HIV-RNA[14]。強化治療對持續(xù)低病毒血癥患者及其病毒儲存庫的影響與常規(guī)HAART方案亦無明顯差異[15]。因此,早期治療或強化治療單一方案可能有助于但尚無法實現(xiàn)艾滋病功能性治愈。

2 “kick and kill”策略

潛伏的HIV感染細胞不表達病毒抗原,機體免疫系統(tǒng)無法識別并清除。采用藥物激活潛伏HIV感染細胞,從而使自身免疫系統(tǒng)識別并清除,即“kick and kill”策略,是目前艾滋病功能性治愈研究重點。

白細胞介素7(Interleukin7,IL-7)可通過JAK-STAT通路激活HIV潛伏感染的靜息CD4細胞,增強T淋巴細胞免疫應(yīng)答。在HAART治療基礎(chǔ)上,間斷使用IL-7可使患者受益[16,17]。但體外實驗證實其可增加感染細胞的病毒復制,且對HIV儲存庫大小無明顯影響[18,19]。激活蛋白激酶C可通過NF-kB通道促進靜息T淋巴細胞激活和HIV轉(zhuǎn)錄。體外試驗證實酪氨酸激酶抑制劑prostratin[20]及其類似物[21]、苔蘚抑素[22]及其類似物-bryologs[23],可增強PKC親合力,誘導HIV潛伏感染模型細胞株病毒復制,激活靜息CD4+T淋巴細胞產(chǎn)生HIV- RNA。但上述化合物部分合成較困難,在臨床應(yīng)用中的不良反應(yīng)及安全性問題有待進一步人體試驗驗證。尚有報道[24]TLR受體配體或激動劑利用CpG DNA介導的信號轉(zhuǎn)導通路誘導NF-kB活化進而激活病毒庫。

HDACi可以改變組蛋白乙酰化狀態(tài),從而激活病毒庫,增強基因轉(zhuǎn)錄水平[25]。HDACi包括選擇性HDACi和非選擇性HDACi,前者如西達本胺、羅米地辛、恩替諾特等,后者包括丙戊酸、伏立諾他、帕比司他等。丙戊酸最早用于HIV病毒庫研究,有小樣本研究顯示,丙戊酸聯(lián)合強化HAART能促進HIV感染者靜息CD4細胞的病毒清除,但隨后的進一步研究顯示,丙戊酸對減少潛伏感染病毒庫水平的作用不明確[26,27]。體外試驗證實伏立諾他能增加HIV轉(zhuǎn)錄,人體實驗也發(fā)現(xiàn)其可激活潛伏的HIV感染細胞[28,29],然而Shan[30]認為被激活的靜息CD4細胞并未被免疫清除。羅米地辛能激活儲存庫,并可在血漿中檢測出HIV-RNA[31]。西達本胺和帕比司他較伏立諾他有更強的病毒庫激活作用[32],目前均已進入臨床試驗階段,以進一步評估其安全性及有效性。甲基化轉(zhuǎn)移酶抑制劑可逆轉(zhuǎn)DNA的甲基化過程,體外試驗[33,34]證實地西他濱、毛殼素等甲基化轉(zhuǎn)移酶抑制劑也可激活潛伏感染細胞。近期,有研究認為戒酒硫[35]可能通過Akt信號通過的激活,促進HIV轉(zhuǎn)錄,并能在血漿中一過性檢測出HIV-RNA,但對病毒儲存庫大小無明顯影響。Smac類似物-LCL162[36]也可通過抑制BIRC2和相關(guān)分子激活病毒庫。

特異性細胞毒性T淋巴細胞(cytotoxic lymphocyte,CTL)反應(yīng)與病毒庫水平呈成負相關(guān),精英控制者能控制病毒庫產(chǎn)生的新病毒即依賴體內(nèi)存在足夠數(shù)量的特異性效應(yīng)性T細胞,清除部分表達病毒蛋白的靜息CD4細胞,其清除程度與體內(nèi)病毒庫大小相關(guān)[37~40]。藥物激活體內(nèi)CTL或體外激活特異性CTL后回輸患者體內(nèi)均可增強體內(nèi)特異性CTL反應(yīng),從而更有效清除HIV感染細胞。新的嵌合抗原受體T細胞技術(shù)[41]通過基因改造,使HIV特異性CTL反應(yīng)性增強,并可持久的靶向清除表達HIV抗原的細胞,為清除激活的儲存庫提供新思路。此外,HIV中和抗體3BNC117不僅在動物實驗中可有效抑制病毒復制,在人體試驗中也得到進一步證實[42],也有望用于清除HIV感染細胞。艾滋病預(yù)防性疫苗是健康人群抵抗HIV的希望,然而多個臨床試驗結(jié)果并不理想。

3 抵御病毒入侵

“柏林患者”的治療成功在于患者移植了攜帶趨化因子受體5(chemokine receptor type 5,CCR5)突變的純合子基因(CCR5△32/△32)供體的造血干細胞[7]。移植后其造血系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生的CD4+T淋巴細胞攜帶缺陷的CCR5,從而使HIV無法感染靶細胞。然而攜帶CCR5純合子基因的人群極少,能配型成功并進行移植的機會極小,且造血干細胞移植也存在很大風險,臨床操作性低。通過鋅指核酸酶技術(shù)[43,44]或類轉(zhuǎn)錄激活因子效應(yīng)物核酸酶技術(shù)[45]敲除CCR5基因、阻滯CCR5表達或者使用基因修飾的方法減少CCR5表達,從而間接阻止HIV復制,達到類似CCR5純合子基因(CCR5△32/△32)的作用[46]。近年來,CRISPR/Cas9技術(shù)[47]不僅可用于敲除改變CCR5或CXCR4基因,使HIV無法進入CD4+T細胞,尚可在細胞內(nèi)監(jiān)控HIV感染,成為艾滋病功能性治愈有前景的方法之一,目前已進入臨床試驗階段。

4 其他

艾滋病進展和CD4+T淋巴細胞密切相關(guān)。CD4+T淋巴細胞的減少與其凋亡有關(guān),然而絕大部分的靜息CD4細胞因細胞焦亡程序?qū)е隆芭杂^者細胞”大量減少[48,49]。VX-765[50]可以通過阻斷半胱氨酸天冬氨酸酶從而阻止細胞焦亡的發(fā)生,從而使CD4細胞數(shù)目保持穩(wěn)定,維持機體正常細胞免疫功能,可用于艾滋病功能性治愈研究。人類內(nèi)源性反轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒(HERV)占人類基因約8%[51],絕大多數(shù)HERVs均為沉默基因[52]。CRISPR/Cas9技術(shù)也可使HIV基因表達沉默,不產(chǎn)生新的病毒,可能在將來成為HIV治療的一種新方法。

總之,清除病毒儲存庫是艾滋病功能性治愈的主要問題。上述的各種方法多處于實驗階段,為艾滋病功能性治愈研究提供了方向,但目前尚無單一有效的方法可完全激活并清除HIV儲存庫。HAART基礎(chǔ)上,不同機制病毒庫激活劑聯(lián)合或病毒庫激活劑聯(lián)合免疫治療等可能是治愈艾滋病的出路。隨著技術(shù)的發(fā)展,尤其是基因編輯技術(shù)的運用,有希望為艾滋病治愈帶來曙光。

[1] Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort C.Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries:a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies[J].Lancet,2008,372(9635):293-299.

[2] Churchill MJ,Gorry PR,Cowley D,et al.Use of laser capture microdissection to detect integrated HIV-1 DNA in macrophages and astrocytes from autopsy brain tissues[J].Journal of neurovirology,2006,12(2):146-152.

[3] North TW,Higgins J,Deere JD,et al.Viral sanctuaries during highly active antiretroviral therapy in a nonhuman primate model for AIDS [J].J Virol,2010,84(6):2913-2922.

[4] Yukl SA,Gianella S,Sinclair E,et al.Differences in HIV burden and immune activation within the gut of HIV-positive patients receiving suppressive antiretroviral therapy[J].The Journal of infectious diseases,2010,202(10):1553-1561.

[5] Chun TW,Justement JS,Murray D,et al.Rebound of plasma viremia following cessation of antiretroviral therapy despite profoundly low levels of HIV reservoir:implications for eradication[J].Aids,2010,24(18):2803-2808.

[6] Bongiovanni M,Casana M,Tincati C,et al.Treatment interruptions in HIV-infected subjects[J].The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy,2006,58(3):502-505.

[7] Hutter G,Nowak D,Mossner M,et al.Long-term control of HIV by CCR5 Delta32/Delta32 stem-cell transplantation[J].The New England journal of medicine,2009,360(7):692-698.

[8] Trono D,Van Lint C,Rouzioux C,et al.HIV persistence and the prospect of long-term drug-free remissions for HIV-infected individuals[J].Science,2010,329(5988):174-180.

[9] Hocqueloux L,Prazuck T,Avettand-Fenoel V,et al.Long-term immunovirologic control following antiretroviral therapy interruption in patients treated at the time of primary HIV-1 infection[J].Aids,2010,24(10):1598-1601.

[10]Saez-Cirion A,Bacchus C,Hocqueloux L,et al.Post-treatment HIV-1 controllers with a long-term virological remission after the interruption of early initiated antiretroviral therapy ANRS VISCONTI Study[J].PLoS pathogens,2013,9(3):e1003211.

[11]Gutierrez C,Diaz L,Vallejo A,et al.Intensification of antiretroviral therapy with a CCR5 antagonist in patients with chronic HIV-1 infection:effect on T cells latently infected[J].PloS one,2011,6(12):e27864.

[12]Siliciano JD,Siliciano RF.AIDS/HIV.Rekindled HIV infection[J].Science,2014,345(6200):1005-1006.

[13]Yukl SA,Shergill AK,McQuaid K,et al.Effect of raltegravir-containing intensification on HIV burden and T-cell activation in multiple gut sites of HIV-positive adults on suppressive antiretroviral therapy[J].Aids,2010,24(16):2451-2460.

[14] Yilmaz A,Verhofstede C,D′Avolio A,et al.Treatment intensification has no effect on the HIV-1 central nervous system infection in patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy[J].Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes,2010,55(5):590-596.

[15]McMahon D,Jones J,Wiegand A,et al.Short-course raltegravir intensification does not reduce persistent low-level viremia in patients with HIV-1 suppression during receipt of combination antiretroviral therapy[J].Clinical infectious diseases,2010,50(6):912-919.

[16]Wang FX,Xu Y,Sullivan J,et al.IL-7 is a potent and proviral strain-specific inducer of latent HIV-1 cellular reservoirs of infected individuals on virally suppressive HAART[J].The Journal of clinical investigation,2005,115(1):128-137.

[17]Levy Y,Lacabaratz C,Weiss L,et al.Enhanced T cell recovery in HIV-1-infected adults through IL-7 treatment[J].The Journal of clinical investigation,2009,119(4):997-1007.

[18]Vandergeeten C,F(xiàn)romentin R,DaFonseca S,et al.Interleukin-7 promotes HIV persistence during antiretroviral therapy[J].Blood,2013,121(21):4321-4329.

[19]Imamichi H,Degray G,Asmuth DM,et al.HIV-1 viruses detected during episodic blips following interleukin-7 administration are similar to the viruses present before and after interleukin-7 therapy[J].Aids,2011,25(2):159-164.

[20]Reuse S,Calao M,Kabeya K,et al.Synergistic activation of HIV-1 expression by deacetylase inhibitors and prostratin:implications for treatment of latent infection[J].PloS one,2009,4(6):e6093.

[21]Beans EJ,F(xiàn)ournogerakis D,Gauntlett C,et al.Highly potent,synthetically accessible prostratin analogs induce latent HIV expression in vitro and ex vivo[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2013,110(29):11698-11703.

[22]Perez M,de Vinuesa AG,Sanchez-Duffhues G,et al.Bryostatin-1 synergizes with histone deacetylase inhibitors to reactivate HIV-1 from latency[J].Current HIV research,2010,8(6):418-429.

[23]DeChristopher BA,Loy BA,Marsden MD,et al.synthetically accessible bryostatin analogues potently induce activation of latent HIV reservoirs in vitro[J].Nature chemistry,2012,4(9):705-10.

[24]Blazkova J,Chun TW,Belay BW,et al.Effect of histone deacetylase inhibitors on HIV production in latently infected,resting CD4(+)T cells from infected individuals receiving effective antiretroviral therapy[J].The Journal of infectious diseases,2012,206(5):765-769.

[25]Archin NM,Keedy KS,Espeseth A,et al.Expression of latent human immunodeficiency type 1 is induced by novel and selective histone deacetylase inhibitors[J].Aids,2009,23(14):1799-1806.

[26]Lehrman G,Hogue IB,Palmer S,et al.Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo:a proof-of-concept study[J].Lancet,2005,366(9485):549-555.

[27]Sagot-Lerolle N,Lamine A,Chaix ML,et al.Prolonged valproic acid treatment does not reduce the size of latent HIV reservoir[J].Aids,2008,22(10):1125-1129.

[28]Contreras X,Schweneker M,Chen CS,et al.Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid reactivates HIV from latently infected cells[J].The Journal of biological chemistry,2009,284(11):6782-6789.

[29]Archin NM,Liberty AL,Kashuba AD,et al.Administration of vorinostat disrupts HIV-1 latency in patients on antiretroviral therapy[J].Nature,2012,487(7408):482-485.

[30]Shan L,Deng K,Shroff N S,et al.Stimulation of HIV-1-specific cytolytic T lymphocytes facilitates elimination of latent viral reservoir after virus reactivation[J].Immunity,2012,36(3):491-501.

[31] S?gaard OS,Graversen ME,Leth S,et al.The depsipeptide romidepsin reverses HIV-1 latency in vivo[J].PLoS Pathog,2015,11(9):e1005142.

[32] Rasmussen TA,Tolstrup M,Brinkmann CR,et al.Panobinostat,a histone deacetylase inhibitor,for latent-virus reactivation in HIV-infected patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy:a phase 1/2,single group,clinical trial[J].Lancet HIV,2014,1(1):e13-21.

[33] Blazkova J,Trejbalova K,Gondois-Rey F,et al.CpG methylation controls reactivation of HIV from latency[J].PLoS pathogens,2009,5(8):e1000554.

[34] Bouchat S,Gatot JS,Kabeya K,et al.Histone methyltransferase inhibitors induce HIV-1 recovery in resting CD4(+)T cells from HIV-1-infected HAART-treated patients[J].AIDS,2012,26(12):1473-1482.

[35] Spivak AM,Andrade A,Eisele E,et al.Apilot study assessing the safety and latency-reversing activity of disulfiram in HIV-1-infected adults on antiretroviral therapy[J].Clin Infect Dis,2014,58(6):883-890.

[36] Pache L,Dutra MS,Spivak AM,et al.BIRC2/cIAP1 Is a Negative Regulator of HIV-1 Transcription and Can Be Targeted by Smac Mimetics to Promote Reversal of Viral Latency[J].Cell Host Microbe,2015,18(3):345-353.

[37]Hersperger AR,Migueles SA,Betts MR,et al.Qualitative features of the HIV-specific CD8+T-cell response associated with immunologic control[J].Current opinion in HIV and AIDS,2011,6(3):169-173.

[38]-Cirion A,Lacabaratz C,Lambotte O,et al.HIV controllers exhibit potent CD8 T cell capacity to suppress HIV infection ex vivo and peculiar cytotoxic T lymphocyte activation phenotype[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2007,104(16):6776-6781.

[39]Shan L,Deng K,Shroff NS,et al.Stimulation of HIV-1-specific cytolytic T lymphocytes facilitates elimination of latent viral reservoir after virus reactivation[J].Immunity,2012,36(3):491-501.

[40]Descours B,Avettand-Fenoel V,Blanc C,et al.Immune responses driven by protective human leukocyte antigen alleles from long-term nonprogressors are associated with low HIV reservoir in central memory CD4 T cells[J].Clinical infectious diseases :an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America,2012,54(10):1495-1503.

[41] MacLean AG,Walker E,Sahu GK,et al.Anovel real-time CTL assay to measure designer T-cell function against HIV Env(+)cells[J].J Med Primatol,2014,43(5):341-348.

[42] Caskey M,Klein F,Lorenzi JC,et al.Viraemia suppressed in HIV-1-infected humans by broadly neutralizing antibody 3BNC117[J].Nature,2015,522(7557):487-491.

[43] Didigu CA,Wilen CB,Wang J,et al.Simultaneous zinc-finger nuclease editing of the HIV coreceptors ccr5 and cxcr4 protects CD4+ T cells from HIV-1 infection[J].Blood,2014,123(1):61-69.

[44] Tebas P,Stein D,Tang WW,et al.Gene editing of CCR5 in autologous CD4 T cells of persons infected with HIV[J].The New England journal of medicine,2014,370(10):901-910.

[45] Owens JB,Mauro D,Stoytchev I,et al.Transcription activator like effector (TALE)-directed piggyBac transposition in human cells[J].Nucleic acids research,2013,41(19):9197-9207.

[46] DiGiusto DL,Krishnan A,Li L,et al.RNA-based gene therapy for HIV with lentiviral vector-modified CD34(+)cells in patients undergoing transplantation for AIDS-related lymphoma[J].Science translational medicine,2010,2(36):36-43.

[47] Saayman S,Ali SA,Morris KV,et al.The therapeutic application of CRISPR/Cas9 technologies for HIV[J].Expert Opin Biol Ther,2015,15(6):819-830.

[48]Gougeon ML,Lecoeur H,Dulioust A,et al.Programmed cell death in peripheral lymphocytes from HIV-infected persons:increased susceptibility to apoptosis of CD4 and CD8 T cells correlates with lymphocyte activation and with disease progression[J].Journal of immunology,1996,156(9):3509-3520.

[49]Doitsh G,Galloway NL,Geng X,et al.Cell death by pyroptosis drives CD4 T-cell depletion in HIV-1 infection[J].Nature,2014,505(7484):509-514.

[50]Stack JH,Beaumont K,Larsen PD,et al.IL-converting enzyme/caspase-1 inhibitor VX-765 blocks the hypersensitive response to an inflammatory stimulus in monocytes from familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome patients[J].Journal of immunology,2005,175(4):2630-2634.

[51]Lander ES,Linton LM,Birren B,et al.Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome[J].Nature,2001,409(6822):860-921.

[52]Esnault C,Millet J,Schwartz O,et al.Dual inhibitory effects of APOBEC family proteins on retrotransposition of mammalian endogenous retroviruses[J].Nucleic acids research,2006,34(5):1522-1531.

Research progress and challenges on functional cure of AIDS

WANG Chun-fu,SUN Yong-tao

(Department of Infectious Diseases,TangDu Hospital,The Fourth Military Medical University,Xi′an 710038,China)

SUNYong-tao

After the "Berlin patient" being reported,functional cure attracts more and more attentions and becomes the new therapeutic goal of AIDS.However,since the establishment of virus latent state in HIV reservoirs it is hard to cure and eradicate HIV with antiretroviral reagents.The more understand the HIV latent state,the more depths of research on HIV reservoirs are developed gradually.Some studies have taken a step from basic research to clinical trials.It seems to be close to functional cure for AIDS.

AIDS;Functional cure;Research review

孫永濤,男,博士,主任醫(yī)師,教授,博士研究生導師,國家疾病預(yù)防控制專家委員會委員,中國醫(yī)師協(xié)會感染病醫(yī)師分會常委,全軍感染病專業(yè)技術(shù)委員會副主任委員,中央軍委保健專家,紐約大學醫(yī)學院客座教授,陜西省肝病學會和感染病學會副主任委員。主要研究方向:艾滋病功能性治愈基礎(chǔ)與臨床研究。

R512.91

A

1672-6170(2016)02-0014-04

2016-01-06)

猜你喜歡
儲存庫靜息艾滋病
下期要目
《 世界艾滋病日》
對艾滋病治愈之路“舉步維艱”的元兇
CCTA聯(lián)合靜息心肌灌注對PCI術(shù)后的評估價值
我國與印尼民用爆炸物品儲存庫標準對比分析
工程爆破(2020年3期)2020-07-23 00:38:56
精神分裂癥和抑郁癥患者靜息態(tài)腦電功率譜熵的對照研究
艾滋病能治愈嗎
預(yù)防艾滋病
艾滋病病毒儲存庫有望“縮小”
首發(fā)抑郁癥腦局部一致性靜息態(tài)MRI對比研究
磁共振成像(2015年1期)2015-12-23 08:52:16
望江县| 玉屏| 离岛区| 正镶白旗| 永清县| 巫溪县| 建昌县| 临颍县| 历史| 盐城市| 临沂市| 正阳县| 习水县| 江津市| 平乐县| 靖远县| 游戏| 江达县| 衡南县| 浪卡子县| 镇坪县| 沅陵县| 余江县| 任丘市| 江安县| 抚远县| 元谋县| 修武县| 霍城县| 栖霞市| 桃园市| 友谊县| 平武县| 衡水市| 葫芦岛市| 从化市| 贵港市| 资源县| 来安县| 长春市| 宁城县|