馮雪伊,沈敏,陳航
(1.司法部司法鑒定科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所上海法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái),上海200063;2.中國刑事警察學(xué)院法化學(xué)系,遼寧沈陽110854)
鑒定綜述Review
唾液中濫用物質(zhì)分析的研究進(jìn)展
馮雪伊1,2,沈敏1,陳航1
(1.司法部司法鑒定科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所上海法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái),上海200063;2.中國刑事警察學(xué)院法化學(xué)系,遼寧沈陽110854)
唾液作為非侵入性生物樣品具有取材方便無創(chuàng)、感染機(jī)會(huì)少、適宜大規(guī)模人群采樣等優(yōu)勢(shì),是近年來法醫(yī)毒物分析、臨床藥物監(jiān)測(cè)、鑒定科學(xué)等領(lǐng)域的重要研究對(duì)象。國際上唾液樣品已廣泛應(yīng)用于毒品濫用檢測(cè)和監(jiān)管等,與血、尿相比,唾液基底較為潔凈,能降低基質(zhì)效應(yīng)產(chǎn)生的干擾,但是唾液采集也存在樣少量微等困難,需要高效的前處理方法以及準(zhǔn)確靈敏的分析技術(shù)。以唾液分析的方法學(xué)角度,對(duì)近十年來唾液中濫用物質(zhì)的前處理手段和分析技術(shù)進(jìn)行綜述,同時(shí)對(duì)唾液檢材的局限性及國內(nèi)外唾液分析所面臨的難點(diǎn)、熱點(diǎn)予以討論。
唾液;濫用物質(zhì);司法鑒定
口腔分泌液由唾液(唾液腺分泌)、口腔黏膜滲出液和齦溝液組成,由于唾液分泌途徑較多,所占體積最大,在許多文獻(xiàn)中,唾液指代為口腔分泌液,作為分析、檢測(cè)的常用檢材。早在20世紀(jì)中期,藥物通過血液進(jìn)入唾液的機(jī)理已有相關(guān)報(bào)道[1-3],血液中游離的藥物分子通過上皮細(xì)胞進(jìn)入唾液腺中,因此唾液中的藥物濃度實(shí)際上反映的是血液中未與蛋白結(jié)合的藥物濃度。Martin等[4]基于亨德森-哈塞爾巴爾赫方程創(chuàng)建了藥物分子的唾液/血液濃度比(S/P)公式模型,酸堿性物質(zhì)的S/P方程分別為:
其中,S代表唾液中的藥物濃度,P代表血液中的藥物濃度,pKb為堿性物質(zhì)的電離常數(shù),pKa為酸性物質(zhì)的電離常數(shù),pHs和pHp分別為唾液和血液的pH值,fp和fs分別為血液和唾液中藥物與蛋白的結(jié)合常數(shù),唾液中的藥物濃度與血液中的藥物濃度有一定的相關(guān)性。國外文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道了唾液分析在藥后駕駛[5-7]、入職體檢[8]等方面的應(yīng)用優(yōu)勢(shì),歐盟國家將唾液中的毒品檢測(cè)結(jié)果作為毒駕的評(píng)價(jià)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)[9]。唾液檢測(cè)窗口在12~24h內(nèi)[10],能夠真實(shí)反映當(dāng)下機(jī)體的藥物使用情況,在毒駕認(rèn)定方面具有更高的參考價(jià)值。
此外,唾液樣品還具有其他方面的優(yōu)勢(shì),如采樣方便無創(chuàng),減少疾病感染機(jī)會(huì),可通過現(xiàn)場(chǎng)監(jiān)督防止摻假調(diào)換等[11],然而相比于血、尿樣品,唾液往往樣少量微,其所含藥物及其代謝物的濃度相對(duì)較低,比尿液樣品低約40倍[12],這些特點(diǎn)對(duì)唾液分析方法的靈敏度提出了更高的要求。同時(shí),藥物進(jìn)入唾液腺前,必須通過三重屏障:毛細(xì)血管壁、基膜以及腺上皮細(xì)胞膜,唾液中藥物含量的多少實(shí)際取決于其通過屏障的難易程度,由藥物本身性質(zhì)(如藥物分子的pKa、藥物的親脂性、分子質(zhì)量、空間構(gòu)型、分子與蛋白結(jié)合度等)和個(gè)體差異性質(zhì)(如膜厚、唾液流速、唾液pH、唾液結(jié)合蛋白以及唾液酶的含量等)決定[13]。這些變化參數(shù)均為唾液中的藥物檢測(cè)帶來一定的困難和挑戰(zhàn)。1992年,Schramm等[14]針對(duì)唾液作為濫用藥物的分析檢材的優(yōu)勢(shì)和缺陷進(jìn)行了總結(jié)和討論,所引文獻(xiàn)較為早期;Bosker等[15]對(duì)2004—2009年之間唾液中濫用藥物的分析文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行了四方面的綜述,包括樣品收集方式、免疫篩選、儀器分析、相關(guān)研究與應(yīng)用,闡述了唾液分析技術(shù)在五年間的快速發(fā)展;國內(nèi)學(xué)者[16-17]對(duì)唾液中毒品檢測(cè)的現(xiàn)狀進(jìn)行分析,并指出我國對(duì)毒駕的研究和管控方面缺乏重視。本文對(duì)近十年來的唾液分析的熱點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)進(jìn)行綜述,側(cè)重于唾液中的濫用物質(zhì)的檢測(cè)手段、結(jié)果評(píng)估以及唾液檢材的分析缺陷等方面,為更深入地研究唾液檢材在法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)、臨床藥學(xué)中的應(yīng)用價(jià)值提供了參考。
1.1苯丙胺類興奮劑
唾液中苯丙胺類興奮劑的分析方法有免疫法[18-19]、氣相色譜-質(zhì)譜(GC-MS)法[20-21]、液相色譜-熒光檢測(cè)器[22](LC-FLD)、液相色譜-質(zhì)譜[23]或串聯(lián)質(zhì)譜(LC-MS或LC-MS/MS)法等[24-25]。Laloup等[26]通過酶聯(lián)免疫吸附法測(cè)定血液、唾液中的苯丙胺、MDMA 和MDA,Souza等[27]指出唾液的免疫分析法不適用于分析哌醋甲酯(利他能)、芬普雷司、安非拉酮這三種苯丙胺類結(jié)構(gòu)的藥物。
Pujadas等[28]建立了GC-MS方法同時(shí)分析唾液中包括苯丙胺類物質(zhì)在內(nèi)的30種精神活性藥物,經(jīng)固相萃取后,苯丙胺類物質(zhì)用MSTFA乙?;瑱z出限為2.9~6.9 ng/mL;另有用GC-MS法研究唾液樣本中的7種苯丙胺類興奮劑(苯丙胺AMP、甲基苯丙胺MAMP、亞甲二氧基甲基苯丙胺MDMA、亞甲基二氧基乙基苯丙胺MDEA、亞甲二氧基苯丙胺MDA、3-羥基-4-甲氧基甲基苯丙胺HMMA和3-羥基-4-甲氧基苯丙胺HMA)[29],第一次對(duì)MDMA的代謝物HMA進(jìn)行分析,400μL唾液樣品經(jīng)固相萃取后,用HFFA衍生化,檢出限在1.0~5.0 ng/mL范圍內(nèi)。
雖然GC-MS分析苯丙胺類物質(zhì)的方法可靠、有效,然而為了降低樣品高溫?fù)p耗以及優(yōu)化色譜行為,必須借助衍生化手段,前處理過程較為復(fù)雜。Liu等[30]建立了LC-MS/MS法分析唾液中的苯丙胺、甲基苯丙胺、嗎啡、可待因、單乙酰嗎啡和乙酰可待因,提取步驟主要為離心分離,檢出限為1 ng/mL;Newmeyer等[31]使用一種Marfey衍生化試劑和LC-MS/MS分離分析血液和唾液中的L-和D-甲基苯丙胺以及其代謝物苯丙胺,手性分離可鑒別當(dāng)事人攝入此類藥物的途徑是否合法,檢出限為0.5 ng/mL,定量限低至1 ng/mL,低于GC-MS方法5~25倍。此外,Chen等[32]建立了一種微波輔助熒光標(biāo)記-毛細(xì)管電泳法對(duì)6種苯丙胺類藥物進(jìn)行檢測(cè),唾液經(jīng)液液萃取后,通過微波輔助加熱大大縮短分析物熒光化時(shí)間;同時(shí),熒光強(qiáng)度比傳統(tǒng)衍生化過程有所增強(qiáng),檢出限最低可至0.05μg/mL,方法靈敏可靠。
1.2大麻類
大麻的主要活性成分是四氫大麻酚(THC),其代謝物四氫大麻酸(THC-COOH)在唾液中的濃度較低。Moore等[33]對(duì)被動(dòng)吸入大麻煙的志愿者唾液進(jìn)行THC、THC-COOH、大麻酚(CBN)、大麻二酚(CBD)檢測(cè)分析,經(jīng)酶聯(lián)免疫法初篩后,THC、CBN 和CBD由GC-MS確證;THC-COOH由二維GC/ GC-MS測(cè)定。結(jié)果表明,所有唾液樣品中的THC檢測(cè)均為陽性,免疫法和GC-MS檢出限分別為4ng/mL 和2 ng/mL,而THC-COOH均無法檢出。在實(shí)際案件中,THC-COOH在唾液中的分析結(jié)果將成為區(qū)分主動(dòng)吸食或者被動(dòng)吸入大麻的關(guān)鍵性證據(jù)。Toennes等[5]對(duì)177例疑似毒駕者的血液和唾液樣本進(jìn)行GC-MS分析,研究血液及唾液的藥物關(guān)聯(lián)性,其中大麻陽性占結(jié)果的78%,THC及THC-COOH的血-唾液關(guān)聯(lián)度分別為97%和92%。因此,在大麻檢測(cè)方面唾液成為血液的替代檢材具有極高的預(yù)估性和評(píng)判性。
Lendoiro等[34]首次運(yùn)用分子印記固相萃取技術(shù)分析唾液和尿液中的THC和THC-COOH,500μL樣品加入固相萃取柱,超聲吸附30min,而后用丙酮:乙腈(v:v=3:1)洗脫,LC-MS/MS分析,唾液檢出限和定量限分別為0.75 ng/mL和1 ng/mL,應(yīng)用分子印記固相萃取處理實(shí)際唾液樣品時(shí),THC在20個(gè)樣品中全部檢出,THC-COOH均無法檢出。Kneisel等[35]運(yùn)用LC/ESI-MS/MS定量分析唾液中28種合成大麻素,檢出限為0.02~0.04 ng/mL。不同時(shí)間段采集同一志愿者的唾液和血液樣品進(jìn)行對(duì)比分析,結(jié)果表明血液中合成大麻素轉(zhuǎn)移進(jìn)入唾液的速率極低,濃度極小,而許多案件中唾液呈大麻陽性的結(jié)果是由口服吸食造成的口腔污染所引起。Kneisel等還對(duì)合成大麻素類物質(zhì)在唾液中的檢測(cè)窗口時(shí)長進(jìn)行分析,平均檢測(cè)時(shí)長為6~28h,大部分物質(zhì)在30min時(shí)間節(jié)點(diǎn)后的檢測(cè)濃度下降至初期的30%,因此唾液中的合成大麻素類物質(zhì)的分析可作為評(píng)判近期是否吸食的關(guān)鍵性證據(jù)。Fabritius等[36]比較了唾液樣品的前處理方法,使用液液提取和固相萃取分別對(duì)唾液中的8種大麻類物質(zhì)進(jìn)行分析,液液提取檢出限和定量限均低于固相萃取法。
1.3阿片類
唾液中阿片類物質(zhì)的文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道早期常側(cè)重于與其他生物檢材的比較分析,探討了唾液在成為替代檢材、判別攝毒及口服可食用阿片類植物的案件性質(zhì)、短時(shí)服用證據(jù)等方面的價(jià)值性,2005年以后唾液中阿片類物質(zhì)的研究重點(diǎn)趨向于色譜-質(zhì)譜聯(lián)用同時(shí)測(cè)定包括阿片類物質(zhì)在內(nèi)的十幾種甚至幾十種精神活性物質(zhì)。Heiskanen等[37]對(duì)使用阿片類鎮(zhèn)痛治療的患癌病人的唾液及血液中的嗎啡、羥考酮和芬太尼進(jìn)行檢測(cè)分析,考察唾液與血液的藥物濃度比(S/P),定量限為0.5~1.0 ng/mL;結(jié)果表明,三種目標(biāo)物在唾液中的濃度均大于血液,這是由于藥物分子呈弱堿性而較容易進(jìn)入偏弱酸性的唾液,實(shí)驗(yàn)證明了唾液能夠替代血液檢測(cè)其中的嗎啡及芬太尼,其結(jié)果可為患癌病人接受阿片治療監(jiān)測(cè)提供分析依據(jù)。Cone等[38]對(duì)2004—2006年之間收集的8 679個(gè)呈濫用藥物陽性的唾液樣本進(jìn)行確證分析,阿片類濫用者的唾液分析中,嗎啡、可待因以及6-單乙酰嗎啡為最常見分析物,其次是海洛因及6-乙??纱?。基于大規(guī)模樣本的藥物分析能對(duì)現(xiàn)有社會(huì)上的流行濫用藥物進(jìn)行檢測(cè)頻率、原藥及代謝物模式、濃度數(shù)據(jù)方面的總結(jié)、歸納,有助于實(shí)際案件的借鑒分析及快速認(rèn)定,整體上把握社會(huì)上的濫用藥物的流行化趨勢(shì)。
Tuyay等[39]指出,服用羥考酮、氫可酮或可待因后,其在人體中的去甲代謝物(去甲羥考酮、去甲氫可酮和去甲可待因)在唾液中的濃度較高,而另外三種常見代謝物,即羥基嗎啡酮、氫嗎啡酮和嗎啡在唾液中無法檢出。因此,將去甲代謝物列為唾液鑒定的目標(biāo)物有助于準(zhǔn)確分析判斷羥考酮、氫可酮或可待因的攝入與否。Enders等[40]使用直接稀釋進(jìn)樣法,快速檢測(cè)唾液中8種阿片類物質(zhì)及其代謝物,包括可待因、嗎啡、氫可酮、氫嗎啡酮、去甲氫可酮、羥考酮、去甲羥考酮和羥基嗎啡酮,樣品僅需100μL,稀釋10倍后直接進(jìn)樣,LC-MS分析,分析時(shí)長為5.1min,免去了前處理過程中繁瑣的凈化和濃縮步驟,大大提高了檢測(cè)效率。
1.4可卡因類興奮劑
可卡因是古柯葉的主要有效成分,由于吸食后能產(chǎn)生歡愉和興奮感,因此常被人為濫用??煽ㄒ蛟谘褐袝?huì)迅速代謝成苯甲酰愛康寧(BE)和愛康寧甲酯(EME)。Scheidweiler等[41]對(duì)皮下注射可卡因的志愿者進(jìn)行唾液分析和藥代動(dòng)力學(xué)研究,首次給出單次攝入可卡因后唾液中的峰值時(shí)間。注射可卡因后,48 h內(nèi)定時(shí)采集1mL唾液樣本,固相萃取并衍生化后,進(jìn)行GC-MS分析。結(jié)果表明,唾液中可卡因的最初檢測(cè)窗口Tfirst為0.08~0.32 h,半衰期為1.1~3.8 h,峰值時(shí)間Tmax出現(xiàn)在0.2~2.1 h,而BE和EME的Tfirst為0.08~1.0 h,其半衰期和Tmax遠(yuǎn)大于可卡因,峰值濃度Cmax僅為可卡因的10%,唾液中的BE、EME和可卡因的比值隨檢測(cè)時(shí)間的增長而迅速增大,表明可卡因在人體內(nèi)迅速代謝。此外,Scheidweiler等還指出,同一個(gè)體的唾液和血液中的三種目標(biāo)物有相關(guān)性,但不排除個(gè)體差異性的因素而導(dǎo)致S/P值的不穩(wěn)定性。
LC-MS/MS檢測(cè)可卡因類興奮劑具有高效、靈敏、專屬性強(qiáng)等特點(diǎn)。Fritch等[42]建立了LC-MS/MS定性定量分析唾液中可卡因類、苯丙胺類、阿片類和苯環(huán)己哌啶的方法,400μL唾液樣品稀釋后進(jìn)行固相萃取,提取回收率達(dá)91.2%,可卡因檢出限為0.4ng/mL,定量限為0.8 ng/mL;Concheiro等[43]使用LC-MS/MS同時(shí)檢測(cè)唾液中可卡因、阿片類、尼古丁及其代謝物,可卡因、BE、EME以及脫水芽子堿甲酯(AEME)的檢出限為0.4~0.8 ng/mL,定量限為0.5~1 ng/mL,唾液量只需250μL,然而方法專屬性中3-羥基-4-甲氧基苯丙胺對(duì)AEME有干擾。
一種新型的現(xiàn)場(chǎng)快速檢測(cè)技術(shù)[44]——接觸式噴霧質(zhì)譜(Touch spraymass spectrometry,TS-MS)法已應(yīng)用于唾液中可卡因類、阿片類、氯胺酮和苯丙胺類物質(zhì)的定性和半定量分析?,F(xiàn)場(chǎng)檢測(cè)技術(shù)要求分析快速、準(zhǔn)確度高,更側(cè)重于方法的定性分析,TSMS法使用臺(tái)式質(zhì)譜儀,比免疫法具有更高的選擇性、專屬性和靈敏度。報(bào)道使用醫(yī)用棉簽吸取口腔唾液,此法同時(shí)作為采樣工具和離子化底物,簡化了樣品前處理步驟。因此,這種一步式的篩選、確證分析技術(shù)對(duì)于現(xiàn)場(chǎng)快速檢測(cè)的需求具有潛在的應(yīng)用價(jià)值。
1.5安眠鎮(zhèn)靜類
1.5.1巴比妥類
巴比妥類藥物在臨床上用于抗癲癇以及麻醉誘導(dǎo)等,長期使用會(huì)形成生理和心理依賴;由于人體的耐受性,治療劑量和致死劑量間的差距逐漸縮小,此類藥物的濫用會(huì)對(duì)人體造成極大傷害。Dean等[45]人分析單次攝入巴比妥類物質(zhì)后,不同時(shí)間段內(nèi)唾液、血液和尿液中的藥物分布情況??诜惗“捅韧?、苯巴比妥以及司可巴比妥鈉后,分別于-1(服藥前1 h)~36 h和48~52 h采集唾液及血、尿,唾液進(jìn)行LC-MS/MS分析,定量限為8 ng/mL;血、尿進(jìn)行GCMS分析,定量限為100 ng/mL。結(jié)果表明,唾液和血液中的三種目標(biāo)物Tfirst大于尿液;48~52 h內(nèi),異丁巴比妥、苯巴比妥在所有樣品中均可檢出,司可巴比妥均無法檢出。1~48h內(nèi),異戊巴比妥和苯巴比妥的S/P值保持穩(wěn)定狀態(tài),證明了在分析巴比妥類藥物方面,唾液作為血液和尿液替代檢材的潛在優(yōu)勢(shì)。
1.5.2苯二氮卓類
苯二氮卓類物質(zhì)是目前世界上應(yīng)用最為廣泛的安眠鎮(zhèn)靜藥,臨床上用于治療抗焦慮、抗痙攣、抗失眠以及抗精神失常等,也常用作及肌肉松弛劑,具有較好的療效。然而長期使用該藥物可出現(xiàn)耐受性和依賴性,過量使用易引起中毒乃至死亡。由于苯二氮卓類藥物容易得到,使用劑量小,體內(nèi)代謝快,往往成為不法分子違法犯罪的主要輔助藥物。國內(nèi)外報(bào)道此類藥物的濫用多涉及藥后駕駛、自殺、麻醉搶劫、強(qiáng)奸等[46-49],血液、尿液為此類案件的常規(guī)檢材。尿液檢測(cè)多以代謝物為主,檢測(cè)時(shí)限長,唾液檢測(cè)主要為藥物原體,通過分析唾液中的藥物可以監(jiān)測(cè)個(gè)體近期是否有藥物服用情況。
苯二氮卓類物質(zhì)眾多,當(dāng)涉及分析范圍寬、化學(xué)異質(zhì)性范圍廣、痕量檢測(cè)時(shí),LC-MS(/MS)具有明顯的優(yōu)勢(shì)。George等[50]建立LC-MS/MS法同時(shí)測(cè)定唾液中14種苯二氮卓類物質(zhì),使用固相萃取,檢出限為0.02~0.5 ng/mL,定量限為0.1~1 ng/mL,方法靈敏可靠,成功應(yīng)用于41例唾液免疫篩選檢測(cè)苯二氮卓類物質(zhì)陽性的確證分析。類似地,Moore等[51]使用固相萃取LC-MS/MS分析唾液中14種苯二氮卓類物質(zhì),乙酸乙酯和2%氨水洗脫,定量限為0.5~1ng/mL,方法回收率均大于82.82%,結(jié)果表明唾液中的藥物原體濃度遠(yuǎn)大于代謝物濃度。Melanson等[52]指出,7-氨基氯硝西泮比原體氯硝西泮更適合作為唾液中此類藥物監(jiān)測(cè)分析的目標(biāo)物。對(duì)100份氯硝西泮及其代謝物7-氨基氯硝西泮陽性患者的唾液進(jìn)行LC-MS/MS分析,其中91%檢出7-氨基氯硝西泮,而44%檢出氯硝西泮,代謝物的唾液濃度為原體的2~4倍。由于氯硝西泮分子為弱酸性,7位上的硝基還原成氨基后使得7-氨基氯硝西泮的堿性大于原體,而更易于進(jìn)入弱酸性的唾液中,因此分析唾液中苯二氮卓類物質(zhì)的代謝物有助于實(shí)際檢測(cè)中排查原體的假陰性結(jié)果。
1.6其他
一些其他藥物(如抗精神藥物、其他安眠鎮(zhèn)靜藥等)的唾液分析,有助于替代血液、尿液分析應(yīng)用于大規(guī)模人群以及兒童、殘障人士、創(chuàng)傷愈合障礙等人群的采樣分析。DiCorcia等[53]使用UPLC-MS/MS快速分析唾液中44種道路現(xiàn)場(chǎng)檢測(cè)中的常見藥物(阿米替林、卡馬西平、唑吡坦、氯胺酮、美沙酮、奧氮平、喹硫平、曲馬多、文拉法辛、芬太尼及其代謝物等),前處理步驟簡單快速,沉淀蛋白后離心,上清液直接進(jìn)樣分析。檢出限范圍為0.02~2.98ng/mL,定量限為1~10 ng/mL,方法高效靈敏,滿足實(shí)際唾液樣品的檢測(cè)需求。Fisher等[54]比較分析了血漿、血清、全血以及唾液中的抗精神失常藥物(氨磺必利、阿立哌唑、脫氫阿立哌唑、氯氮平、去甲氯氮平、奧氮平、喹硫平、利培酮、9-羥基利培酮以及舒必利),乙酸丁酯:丁醇(v:v=9:1)提取后進(jìn)行LC-MS/MS分析。結(jié)果顯示,回收率范圍為16%~107%,同一目標(biāo)物在不同基質(zhì)中的濃度呈相關(guān)變化,僅有脫氫阿立哌唑、去甲氯氮平以及奧氮平的唾液濃度與血液濃度無相關(guān)性。與血液分析相比,唾液分析對(duì)此類藥物中的個(gè)別目標(biāo)物還具有一定的局限性。
2.1唾液采集方式對(duì)唾液分析產(chǎn)生的影響
健康成年人每天能夠產(chǎn)生約500~1 500mL唾液量,但在很多情況下,受年齡、生理狀況、遺傳因素、口腔疾病等影響,通過個(gè)人自然流出唾液的非刺激方式(吐口水)獲得的唾液采集量往往不足(<1mL),且容易攜帶食物殘?jiān)⒖谇火つさ入s質(zhì)。此外,長期抽煙或有藥物攝入者容易產(chǎn)生口腔干燥癥,這是由于藥物引起交感神經(jīng)活躍從而降低了唾液分泌率,需要通過刺激方式使唾液腺分泌量增加,短時(shí)間內(nèi)獲得更多樣品。刺激方式主要有味覺刺激,如口含檸檬酸鹽、酸性糖果,或者通過咀嚼石蠟、橡皮等的機(jī)械式刺激。不同的刺激方式會(huì)影響唾液的粘蛋白含量以及pH值,從而影響血液中的藥物進(jìn)入唾液的難易程度。由于健康人體的唾液pH比血液pH低,呈弱酸性(pH 6.2~7.4),因此脂溶性的堿性藥物比酸性藥物更容易從血液擴(kuò)散進(jìn)入唾液。堿性藥物如苯丙胺類以及阿片類在唾液中的濃度高于血液,而酸性藥物如巴比妥類的唾液濃度低于血液。酸性味覺刺激會(huì)使唾液的pH值更趨向于中性,降低弱堿性藥物在唾液中的電離程度,阻礙其梯度擴(kuò)散[55]。
Eric等[56]比較了刺激性和非刺激性的兩種采集方式下,美沙酮的S/P差異。14位接受美沙酮治療患者的唾液兩份,分別通過非刺激性的收集裝置以及口含檸檬酸自然流出的方式收集;同時(shí)收集血液樣品,使用UPLC分析。結(jié)果顯示,非刺激性方式表現(xiàn)出更高的唾液-血液的藥物濃度關(guān)聯(lián)性,其S/P值(0.9)高于利用酸刺激方式的S/P值(0.1~0.5)。酸刺激后會(huì)產(chǎn)生較多的碳酸氫鹽,使唾液pH值升高從而降低弱堿性藥物滲透唾液腺的幾率。因此,唾液的pH值越接近藥物的pKa值,血液中的游離藥物進(jìn)入唾液的幾率則越小。此外,Eric等還研究了美沙酮的藥物濃度隨時(shí)間的變化規(guī)律,指出食物的攝入有利于增加美沙酮在唾液中的濃度。
另有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,非刺激性方式產(chǎn)生的唾液中可待因濃度為刺激性方式的2~3倍[57],甲基苯丙胺為2~4倍[58],可卡因約為5倍[55]。
2.2唾液收集裝置對(duì)唾液分析產(chǎn)生的影響
除了使唾液自然流出的收集方式之外,市面上有許多不同型號(hào)的唾液收集裝置。由于收集裝置的唾液吸收元件、裝置緩沖液、裝置防腐劑的種類各異,其對(duì)唾液中的藥物濃度會(huì)造成一定影響。Lund等[59]發(fā)現(xiàn)Intercept裝置較StatSure Saliva Sample裝置受基質(zhì)干擾較小,更適宜分析唾液中的32種濫用藥物及其代謝物。另有文獻(xiàn)[60]報(bào)道了兩種收集裝置Saliva Collection System(SCS)和Quantisal對(duì)12份唾液中的可待因檢測(cè)產(chǎn)生的差異性影響。經(jīng)GC-MS分析后發(fā)現(xiàn),兩種裝置的唾液與血液的皮爾森相關(guān)系數(shù)(P=0.005)不同,SCS大于Quantisal,表明使用SCS裝置收集時(shí),可待因的唾液與血液關(guān)聯(lián)度好,S/P值變化差異小。唾液收集裝置的最大缺點(diǎn)是唾液收集體積的非固定性和不確定性,尤其影響藥物在唾液裝置上的回收率。Desrosiers等[61]對(duì)StatSure Saliva Sample和Oral-Eze兩種裝置對(duì)唾液中大麻類物質(zhì)的分析影響進(jìn)行了研究。通過GC/MS分析,表明Oral-Eze唾液樣品中的THC-COOH和THC濃度高于StatSure樣品。甚至通過非裝置收集方式比裝置收集方式得到的THC檢測(cè)含量要高[62]。Gjerde等[63]指出Intercept裝置的小體積唾液量比StatSure唾液量中的藥物分析濃度高。類似還有文獻(xiàn)[64]指出Salivette裝置對(duì)于唾液中的THC具有較差的回收率,然而其適用于分析唾液中的可待因;Quantisal[65]和Oral-Eze[66]對(duì)唾液中的THC表現(xiàn)出良好的儲(chǔ)存穩(wěn)定性和較高的回收率。了解常用收集裝置對(duì)唾液分析的影響有助于在實(shí)際交通安全檢測(cè)及藥物監(jiān)測(cè)中分析特定目標(biāo)物時(shí)選用適宜的收集裝置。常見的唾液收集裝置見表1。
表1 常見不同型號(hào)的唾液收集裝置及其收集方法
2.3進(jìn)食對(duì)唾液分析產(chǎn)生的影響
食物和飲料的攝入會(huì)改變口腔環(huán)境,影響唾液的分泌狀態(tài),其在一定程度上會(huì)影響唾液中藥物的分析結(jié)果。國外學(xué)者[94]分析進(jìn)食后志愿者的唾液中所含苯丙胺類、美沙酮、阿片類和可卡因的情況,樣品經(jīng)兩種唾液免疫檢測(cè)法Concateno Certus和Orasure Intercept篩選呈陽性后進(jìn)行GC-MS或LC-MS/ MS確證分析。結(jié)果表明,實(shí)驗(yàn)中可能的干擾性食物、飲料及外源性物質(zhì)——咖啡、可樂、果汁、橙子、辣醬以及牙膏對(duì)兩種免疫篩選方法的影響結(jié)果截然相反。Orasure法檢出所有目標(biāo)物,表明進(jìn)食對(duì)唾液檢測(cè)無干擾;而Concateno法對(duì)所有目標(biāo)物均無法檢出。此外,實(shí)驗(yàn)還證明了食醋的攝入會(huì)使免疫檢測(cè)的分析窗口延長。因此在實(shí)際案件中,僅使用免疫法分析唾液中的濫用物質(zhì),無法排除進(jìn)食對(duì)唾液分析的干擾,必須借助儀器分析方法進(jìn)一步確證。
2.4其他干擾性因素
唾液能夠成為血液分析的替代檢材,最關(guān)鍵的前提是兩者中的游離藥物濃度具有關(guān)聯(lián)性,只有在這種情況下,唾液的藥物濃度值才能最真實(shí)地反映個(gè)體的受藥影響程度。其中,藥物攝入途徑的差異是干擾唾液分析的首要因素之一,如吸煙、燙吸以及口服方式易造成藥物在口腔黏膜中沉積,從而使得S/P值的測(cè)定偏高。Jenkins等[95]研究吸服和靜脈注射兩種不同的攝入途徑對(duì)唾液及血液中的海洛因和可卡因的濃度分布影響。吸服和靜脈注射海洛因的兩種途徑下唾液Tfirst均為2min,然而兩種途徑下的唾液Tmax和Cmax均不同,吸服方式較靜脈注射延遲0~3min,前者濃度為后者的118~3430倍;吸服可卡因后的唾液Cmax為靜脈注射的8~1 180倍左右,而吸服后的血液Cmax稍小于靜脈注射方式。同時(shí),研究表明吸服方式會(huì)延長海洛因唾液濃度的檢測(cè)時(shí)間,而血液窗口不變;靜脈注射方式下,唾液和血液的檢測(cè)窗口沒有明顯差異性。實(shí)際案件分析中應(yīng)更加注重檢測(cè)對(duì)象的攝藥情況,詢問其攝入時(shí)間、劑量,尤其是攝入方式,合理地進(jìn)行唾液分析結(jié)果的評(píng)價(jià)。
被動(dòng)吸入是唾液分析的另一個(gè)研究熱點(diǎn)。大麻是全球范圍內(nèi)濫用頻率最高的毒品,吸食過程中常產(chǎn)生大麻煙霧,被動(dòng)吸入大麻常易造成健康人體的唾液、尿液假陽性的情況。Niedbala等[96]提出健康人體唾液中的THC陽性可能是由于采集環(huán)境的污染(室內(nèi)采集)造成,并通過實(shí)驗(yàn)進(jìn)行證實(shí)。然而Moore等[33]在相對(duì)干凈的環(huán)境里檢測(cè)經(jīng)大麻煙暴露后的健康人體唾液中的THC,結(jié)果仍能檢出。Herrmann[97]探討了大麻煙劑量和通風(fēng)狀況對(duì)被動(dòng)吸入程度的影響,結(jié)果表明在一定程度上,大麻煙劑量越大,通風(fēng)狀況越差,THC的唾液、血液濃度相對(duì)較高,個(gè)體明顯表現(xiàn)出眼睛和黏膜刺激感。
綜上所述,唾液作為生物檢材在樣品收集分析、處理和應(yīng)用等方面具有一定的優(yōu)勢(shì)。目前對(duì)唾液檢材的研究都集中在唾液和血液中藥物濃度的關(guān)聯(lián)性分析、唾液分析的影響因素等。但唾液的檢測(cè)窗口短、收集體積量不足、弱酸性藥物及代謝物含量低等缺陷也需要引起關(guān)注。唾液檢材應(yīng)用于毒駕分析已在許多發(fā)達(dá)國家普及并且檢測(cè)技術(shù)日趨成熟。隨著研究方法不斷改進(jìn),檢測(cè)技術(shù)不斷提升,唾液分析將在我國藥物監(jiān)測(cè)、毒駕檢測(cè)、吸毒認(rèn)定等多個(gè)領(lǐng)域得以應(yīng)用與普及。
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(本文編輯:施妍)
Advances in Forensic Analysis of Drugs of Abuse and Psychoactive Drugs in Saliva
FENG Xue-yi1,2,SHEN Min1,CHEN Hang1
(1.Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine,Shanghai Forensic Service Platform,Institute of Forensic Science,Ministry of Justice,Shanghai200063,China;2.Department of Forensic Chemistry,National Police University of China,Shenyang 110854,China)
In recent years,there has been substantial interest in the use of saliva for drug testing in the fields of forensic toxicology and clinical drugmonitoring.As one type of non-invasive biological specimen,saliva has the advantages of easy collection,low risk of disease infection,and the potential of large-scale sampling.Saliva samples have been widely applied in developed countries for drug abuse test.Besides,the matrix of saliva is clearer than blood and urine,thus lessmatrix effect is observed.However,due to the disadvantage of inadequate volume and trace drug concentration,saliva analysis demands highly efficient sample preparation and more sensitive analytical techniques.In this paper,the research progress in saliva analysis for drugs of abuse and psychoactive drugs in the last ten years was introduced,focusing on sample preparation and analytical techniques.The limitation of saliva sample,the analytical difficulties and the research hotspots were also summarized.
saliva;drug of abuse;forensic identification
DF795.4
A
10.3969/j.issn.1671-2072.2016.04.010
1671-2072-(2016)04-0057-11
2016-05-12
國家級(jí)科研院所公益項(xiàng)目(GY2016Z-1);國家自然科學(xué)基金面上項(xiàng)目(81273340);上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室項(xiàng)目(14DZ2270800);上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái)資助項(xiàng)目(16DZ2290900)
馮雪伊(1991—),女,碩士研究生,主要從事分析化學(xué)研究。E-mail:milk_juice@sina.com。
沈敏(1955—),女,研究員,博士研究生導(dǎo)師,主要從事法醫(yī)毒物鑒定研究和司法鑒定管理工作。
E-mail:shenm@ssfjd.cn。