張小寧 莊建
綜 述
移植靜脈病基因治療基礎(chǔ)研究和臨床應(yīng)用
張小寧 莊建
作者單位:510080 廣東省廣州市,廣東省醫(yī)學(xué)科學(xué)院廣東省人民醫(yī)院心外科
移植靜脈?。?基因治療
自體靜脈是動(dòng)脈重建術(shù)的常用材料。然而,自體靜脈移植術(shù)后,由于自體靜脈經(jīng)受缺血、損傷、炎癥反應(yīng)和承受動(dòng)脈血的高壓等因素,早期可能出現(xiàn)移植靜脈痙攣、栓塞,隨后可產(chǎn)生移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生和粥樣硬化,偶見血管瘤,這些現(xiàn)象統(tǒng)稱為移植靜脈病(vein graft disease),其嚴(yán)重影響著冠脈搭橋術(shù)(coronary artery bypass grafting,CABG)和外周血管疾病術(shù)后的臨床效果。因移植靜脈在離體后可先進(jìn)行基因轉(zhuǎn)染,然后移植,所以從理論上講移植靜脈是理想的基因治療靶標(biāo),移植靜脈病基因治療成為心血管外科研究的前沿。本文就移植靜脈病基因治療相關(guān)基礎(chǔ)研究與臨床應(yīng)用進(jìn)行總結(jié)。
1.1 抑制炎癥細(xì)胞及炎癥因子 炎癥細(xì)胞(單核細(xì)胞和白細(xì)胞)浸潤(rùn),巨噬細(xì)胞大量炎癥因子釋放,是導(dǎo)致移植靜脈病的關(guān)鍵因素,許多基因治療方案是針對(duì)這一機(jī)制設(shè)計(jì)的。Chen等[1]于1994年首先報(bào)道腺病毒介導(dǎo)可溶性血管細(xì)胞黏附分子(soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule,sVCAM) 轉(zhuǎn)基因治療移植靜脈病,雖未取得陽(yáng)性治療結(jié)果,但成功地將sVCAM基因轉(zhuǎn)染了移植靜脈,拉開了基因治療移植靜脈病的序幕。內(nèi)皮型一氧化氮合酶(endothelial nitric oxide synthase,eNOS)和誘導(dǎo)型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,iNOS)均可促使一氧化氮(nitric oxide,NO)的合成,而NO具有抑制炎癥細(xì)胞和抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增生等重要生理作用。多項(xiàng)研究顯示,eNOS和iNOS轉(zhuǎn)基因有效地抑制了炎細(xì)胞和移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生,起到了防治移植靜脈病的作用[2]。金屬蛋白酶(metalloproteinases,MMPs)介導(dǎo)血管平滑肌細(xì)胞移位增生,多項(xiàng)研究報(bào)道轉(zhuǎn)染其抑制分子金屬蛋白酶組織抑制劑 (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1,TIMP-1)、TIMP-2、TIMP-3基因,有效地抑制了血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增生和移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增厚[3,4]。研究顯示,抗炎蛋白35K(soluble CC-CK binding protein)基因轉(zhuǎn)染抑制了白細(xì)胞和單核細(xì)胞的積聚和移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增厚[5]。白細(xì)胞浸潤(rùn)和絲氨酸彈性蛋白酶活性可導(dǎo)致血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增生,轉(zhuǎn)染選擇性絲氨酸彈性蛋白酶抑制分子elafin基因有效地減低了早期炎癥反應(yīng)和延緩了移植靜脈新內(nèi)膜形成[6]。近年來(lái)研究顯示,單核細(xì)胞趨化因子-1(monocyte chemotactic protein-1,MCP-1)在移植靜脈病中起關(guān)鍵作用,使用反義轉(zhuǎn)基因技術(shù)直接抑制MCP-1基因表達(dá)及使用MCP-1受體的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性受體拮抗劑7ND(N-terminal deletion mutant of the MCP-1 gene)均可抑制巨噬細(xì)胞和移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生[7]。研究[8]顯示,基因轉(zhuǎn)染CGRP抑制了巨噬細(xì)胞浸潤(rùn)及炎癥因子MCP-1、腫瘤壞死因子-α(transforming growth factor-α,TNF-α)、iNOS、MMP-9 的表達(dá),通過(guò)多種機(jī)制保護(hù)移植靜脈,發(fā)揮防治移植靜脈病的作用。使用反義轉(zhuǎn)基因技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)染反義c-myc可抑制巨噬細(xì)胞和移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生[9]。而使用反義轉(zhuǎn)基因技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)染轉(zhuǎn)化生長(zhǎng)因子β1(transforming growth factor-beta1,TGF-β1)可減低移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生,MCP-1、膠原積聚,促使巨噬細(xì)胞凋亡,發(fā)揮防治移植靜脈病的作用[10]。基因沉默技術(shù)在移植靜脈病的基礎(chǔ)研究中也得到應(yīng)用。使用細(xì)胞間黏附因子-1(intercellular adhesion molecule,ICAM-1) 小干擾RNA(small interfering RNA,siRNA)成功地抑制了炎癥因子ICAM-1的表達(dá)[11];使用Midkine siRNA成功地抑制了炎癥細(xì)胞和新內(nèi)膜增生[12]。核因子-κB(nuclear factor-κB,NF-κB)在炎癥調(diào)節(jié)中有重要作用。研究顯示,使用NF-κB decoy下調(diào)NF-κB抑制了內(nèi)膜增生和ICAM-1基因表達(dá)[13]。聯(lián)合基因治療也應(yīng)用于移植靜脈病治療中。Turunen等[14]的研究顯示,聯(lián)合抗炎蛋白細(xì)胞外超氧化物歧化酶(extracellular superoxide dismutase,EC-SOD)+35K在減低巨噬細(xì)胞浸潤(rùn)方面比聯(lián)合EC-SOD(extracellular superoxide dismutase)+TIMP-1 更有效,聯(lián)合抗自由基、抗炎、抗增生基因可能更有效地減低新內(nèi)膜形成,這可能因?yàn)閮煞N不同基因從不同的分子生物學(xué)機(jī)制更有效地影響早期疾病形成的不同病理路徑。肝細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)因子(hepatocyte growth factor,HGF)抑制和改善慢性炎癥和纖維化。有報(bào)道,使用輪狀病毒介導(dǎo)HGF可達(dá)到抑制移植靜脈病的作用[15]。
1.2 抑制血栓形成 血栓形成是移植靜脈早期失敗的主要因素,抑制血栓形成是防治移植靜脈病提高移植靜脈通暢率的有效方法。Kuo等[16]早在1998年就報(bào)道腺病毒介導(dǎo)組織型纖溶酶原激活劑(tissue-type plasminogen activator,tPA)轉(zhuǎn)基因有效地抑制移植靜脈血栓形成。我國(guó)學(xué)者黃志雄等[17]報(bào)道腺病毒介導(dǎo)尿激酶原基因有效防止了血栓形成,抑制移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增厚,提高了移植靜脈通暢率。Ohno等[18]報(bào)道腺病毒介導(dǎo)C-型利鈉肽(C-type natriuretic peptide,CNP)抑制血栓形成和新內(nèi)膜增生。有研究[19]結(jié)果顯示,血栓調(diào)節(jié)蛋白(thrombomodulin,TM)轉(zhuǎn)基因有效地抑制移植靜脈血栓形成。
1.3 抑制細(xì)胞分裂 轉(zhuǎn)錄因子(transcription factor,E2F)參與細(xì)胞周期調(diào)控,基因轉(zhuǎn)染E2F decoy可抑制表達(dá)c-myc、cdc2和增殖細(xì)胞核抗原(proliferating cell nuclear antigen,PCNA)基因,抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖和內(nèi)膜增生[20]。有報(bào)道,基因轉(zhuǎn)染microRNA-221、microRNA-145、早期生長(zhǎng)反應(yīng)因子-1的誘騙寡核苷酸(early growth response gene-1 decoy oligonucleotide,Egr-1 decoy ODN)、Jag1 及Girdin蛋白(girders of actin filaments)通過(guò)抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖而取得了抑制移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生的作用[21-25]。而最新研究顯示,NF-κB和E2F嵌合體的decoy不僅抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖和內(nèi)膜增生,而且可抑制巨噬細(xì)胞浸潤(rùn)和炎癥因子釋放[26]。β-腎上腺素能受體激酶抑制劑(carboxyl terminus of the Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase-1,β-ARKCT)可抑制細(xì)胞絲裂信號(hào)Gβγ,基因轉(zhuǎn)染β-ARKCT基因抑制移植血管內(nèi)膜增生[27]。Delta Rb控制細(xì)胞分裂G1/S相位轉(zhuǎn)變,有報(bào)道顯示,Delta Rb轉(zhuǎn)基因抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖和內(nèi)膜增生[28]。cdc2基因是有絲分裂的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵調(diào)節(jié)因子,沒有cdc2的活性,細(xì)胞不能進(jìn)入有絲分裂;PCNA與細(xì)胞DNA合成關(guān)系密切,在細(xì)胞增殖的啟動(dòng)上起重要作用?;蜣D(zhuǎn)染反義cdc2和反義PCNA均報(bào)道抑制移植血管內(nèi)膜增生[29]。有報(bào)道,逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒載體介導(dǎo)哺乳動(dòng)物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin,mTOR)進(jìn)行核糖核酸干擾(RNA interfere,RNAi),可將血管平滑肌細(xì)胞分裂停頓于G(0)/G(1)期,可抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖和移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生[30]。
1.4 抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖 血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖是導(dǎo)致移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生的開始。有報(bào)道[31],基因轉(zhuǎn)染第10號(hào)染色體缺失的磷酸酶和張力蛋白同源物基因(phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10,PTEN),可能通過(guò)抑制磷脂酰肌醇(-3)激酶信號(hào)通路,從而抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖,達(dá)到抑制移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生的目的。內(nèi)皮素-1的合成激發(fā)血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖和加重新內(nèi)膜增生。有報(bào)道[32],通過(guò)使用轉(zhuǎn)錄因子活化劑蛋白-1誘捕基因寡脫氧核苷酸抑制前內(nèi)皮素-1的合成,可達(dá)到減少新內(nèi)膜形成的目的。激活素A,一個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)化生長(zhǎng)因子β超家族成員,可提高平滑肌細(xì)胞收縮表型。研究[33]顯示,基因轉(zhuǎn)染激活素A可減低移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生。血小板衍生內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)因子(platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor,PDECGF)/胸苷磷酸化酶 (thymidine phosphorylase,TP)抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞移行和增殖。有報(bào)道[34],基因轉(zhuǎn)染PD-ECGF/TP可有效減低移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生。研究[35]顯示,基因轉(zhuǎn)染Gax,過(guò)度表達(dá)Gax,可以誘導(dǎo)血管平滑肌細(xì)胞凋亡,從而發(fā)揮預(yù)防移植靜脈病的作用。
1.5 調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞凋亡 誘導(dǎo)血管平滑肌細(xì)胞凋亡可能減少新內(nèi)膜形成?;谶@種想法,Wan等[36]用基因轉(zhuǎn)染促凋亡基因p53,有效地抑制了移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生。存活素(Survivin)是一種凋亡蛋白抑制劑。有趣的是,Wang等[37]的研究顯示,在離體過(guò)度表達(dá)Survivin抑制炎癥因子誘導(dǎo)的細(xì)胞凋亡,保護(hù)內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞和血管平滑肌細(xì)胞;而基因轉(zhuǎn)染Survivin有效抑制移植靜脈內(nèi)膜增生和細(xì)胞凋亡。
1.6 其他 堿性成纖維細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)因子(basic fibroblast growth factor,bFGF)上調(diào)血管損傷;在細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)中,通過(guò)基因轉(zhuǎn)染反義堿性成纖維細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)因子(antisense basic fibroblast growth factor,ASbFGF)劑量相關(guān)地減低血管平滑肌細(xì)胞的生長(zhǎng)效率;有報(bào)道在靜脈移植中基因轉(zhuǎn)染ASbFGF減低靜脈移植血管剪切力,維持移植靜脈管腔面積[38]。HSP20高度表達(dá)在血管平滑肌細(xì)胞,基因轉(zhuǎn)染HSP20抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞收縮和血小板凝聚,抑制血管內(nèi)膜增生,有望預(yù)防移植靜脈病[39]。
總之,基因治療目標(biāo)基因從抑制炎癥細(xì)胞及炎癥因子、抑制血栓形成、抑制細(xì)胞分裂、抑制血管平滑肌細(xì)胞增殖、調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞凋亡等方面都有效地防治了移植靜脈病。聯(lián)合基因治療、反義基因治療、基因誘捕技術(shù)、基因干擾技術(shù)、基因沉默技術(shù)均應(yīng)用到移植靜脈病的基因治療中,然而移植靜脈病的分子生物學(xué)機(jī)制尚未完全明了,深入研究移植靜脈病的分子生物學(xué)機(jī)制,選擇針對(duì)移植靜脈病分子生物學(xué)機(jī)制的基因,是今后移植靜脈病基因治療的研究方向。
腺病毒、仙臺(tái)病毒、脂質(zhì)體、寡聚脫氧核苷酸和DNA寡聚物是移植靜脈病研究中最常用的基因轉(zhuǎn)染技術(shù),然而這些載體表達(dá)時(shí)間短暫,短暫表達(dá)的載體不能適應(yīng)移植靜脈病長(zhǎng)期預(yù)防的要求。逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒可持久表達(dá),有報(bào)道逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒也成功地轉(zhuǎn)染了移植靜脈[30],然而逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒具有潛在毒性、不能適合批量生產(chǎn)等缺陷。腺相關(guān)病毒載體在非人類靈長(zhǎng)類動(dòng)物中至少可以表達(dá)8年,在人類患者中有至少表達(dá)3.7年的報(bào)道,而且腺相關(guān)病毒載體安全、低毒、適合批量生產(chǎn)[40]。新近研究[41]表明,重組腺相關(guān)病毒載體(recombinant adeno-associated virus,rAAV)可成功轉(zhuǎn)染移植靜脈,而經(jīng)改造的重組腺相關(guān)病毒載體1型(rAAV1)進(jìn)一步提高了基因轉(zhuǎn)染效率[42]。Stachler和Bartlett[43]的研究顯示,嵌合型重組腺相關(guān)病毒載體1型(rAAV1)50~100倍地增加了血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞基因的轉(zhuǎn)染效率,并認(rèn)為嵌合型重組腺相關(guān)病毒載體1型很有希望在血管進(jìn)行基因轉(zhuǎn)染。我們成功地構(gòu)建了嵌合型重組腺相關(guān)病毒(2/1),并成功地轉(zhuǎn)染了移植靜脈[8]。
Edifoligide,一種E2F轉(zhuǎn)錄因子誘捕基因,經(jīng)過(guò)多項(xiàng)基礎(chǔ)研究證明E2F decoy可以有效地抑制移植靜脈病的進(jìn)程[20]。Mann等[44]于1999年報(bào)道應(yīng)用Edifoligide治療冠脈旁路移植病,一期臨床應(yīng)用顯示,有防治冠脈旁路移植病的趨向。但到2005年Alexander等[45]報(bào)道進(jìn)行了四期3014例臨床研究后顯示,Edifoligide治療冠脈旁路移植病不比安慰劑更有效。我們認(rèn)為,在基礎(chǔ)研究資料中僅研究了E2F decoy基因轉(zhuǎn)染后2~4周的變化,而臨床研究則觀察基因轉(zhuǎn)染12~18個(gè)月后的效果。在基因轉(zhuǎn)染12~18個(gè)月后基因早已不再表達(dá),基礎(chǔ)與臨床研究脫節(jié),沒有使用可以長(zhǎng)期表達(dá)的基因轉(zhuǎn)染載體是Edifoligide臨床研究失敗的主要原因。
總之,移植靜脈病非常適合進(jìn)行基因治療。移植靜脈病的基因治療研究類似研究火箭,基因載體似火箭推進(jìn)器,要求長(zhǎng)期有效表達(dá),且對(duì)人體無(wú)毒。選擇合適基因似衛(wèi)星,需要機(jī)制明確、效果良好。所以,選擇最佳的可以長(zhǎng)效表達(dá)的基因轉(zhuǎn)染載體和針對(duì)移植靜脈病的分子生物學(xué)機(jī)制的基因,是今后移植靜脈病基礎(chǔ)研究和臨床應(yīng)用的方向。
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Basic research and clinical application of gene therapy for vein graft disease
Vein graft disease; Gene therapy
張小寧,E-mail:xiaoningzhang@msn.com
10.3969/j.issn.1672-5301.2017.02.005
R654.2
A
1672-5301(2017)02-0113-05
2016-06-29)