張 玉,劉 蕓,黃浩宇
·新進(jìn)展·
孤獨(dú)癥病因?qū)W的研究進(jìn)展
張 玉,劉 蕓*,黃浩宇
孤獨(dú)癥也稱自閉癥,是一種發(fā)育障礙類疾病,主要表現(xiàn)為社交障礙、溝通交流障礙、興趣狹窄和重復(fù)刻板行為。孤獨(dú)癥是世界范圍內(nèi)影響兒童健康的最嚴(yán)重公共問題之一。目前,孤獨(dú)癥的病因尚不明確。本文就近年來孤獨(dú)癥病因?qū)W研究進(jìn)展進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)回顧,從遺傳與免疫因素、環(huán)境因素、腸腦與腸道微生物、飲食與營養(yǎng)、代謝、葉酸、神經(jīng)生物學(xué)因素、內(nèi)感覺等角度探討孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生機(jī)制。
孤獨(dú)性障礙;危險(xiǎn)因素;遺傳;代謝
孤獨(dú)癥是神經(jīng)發(fā)育障礙類疾病,可導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的社交行為問題,主要表現(xiàn)為社交障礙、溝通交流障礙、興趣狹窄和重復(fù)刻板行為。阿斯伯格綜合征(Asperger syndrome)、童年瓦解性障礙(childhood disintegrative disorder)和未分類的廣泛發(fā)育障礙(PDD-NOS)等與典型孤獨(dú)癥或不典型孤獨(dú)癥統(tǒng)稱為孤獨(dú)癥譜系障礙(autism spectrum disorder,ASD)[1]。
近年來,隨著社會生活環(huán)境和家庭結(jié)構(gòu)的變化,孤獨(dú)癥患病率有增加趨勢。2009年英國數(shù)據(jù)顯示孤獨(dú)癥患病率為1.57%[2];2011年韓國調(diào)查顯示孤獨(dú)癥患病率高達(dá)2.64%[3];2013年美國6~17歲人群孤獨(dú)癥患病率為2%,其中男性患病率是女性4~5倍[4]。由于我國對孤獨(dú)癥的研究較晚,早期數(shù)據(jù)缺乏,部分地區(qū)調(diào)查結(jié)果顯示孤獨(dú)癥患病率為2.8/萬~75.4/萬[5]。孤獨(dú)癥已是世界范圍內(nèi)影響兒童健康的最嚴(yán)重公共問題之一,隨著其患病率的增加,孤獨(dú)癥將給家庭及社會帶來沉重的心理和經(jīng)濟(jì)負(fù)擔(dān)。然而,目前為止,孤獨(dú)癥的致病機(jī)制尚未明確。本文基于近年對孤獨(dú)癥病因的研究進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)回顧,重點(diǎn)從遺傳與免疫因素、環(huán)境因素、腸腦與腸道微生物、飲食與營養(yǎng)、代謝、葉酸、神經(jīng)生物學(xué)因素、內(nèi)感覺等方面進(jìn)行綜述,以便為孤獨(dú)癥病因的進(jìn)一步研究提供參考。
孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生具有明顯的遺傳易患性?;蛭稽c(diǎn)15q11.2-13.1、15q13.2-13.3、16p13.2、16q23.3和22q11.2等已確定與孤獨(dú)癥有關(guān)[6]。研究表明,拷貝數(shù)變異(CNVs)和單核苷酸多態(tài)性(SNPs)對孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生具有重要影響。10%~20%的ASD患者存在CNVs,而普通人群和孤獨(dú)癥患者的健康兄弟姐妹中出現(xiàn)CNVs的概率僅為1%~2%[7]。
近年研究發(fā)現(xiàn),位于染色體14q11.2區(qū)域的染色體結(jié)構(gòu)域解旋酶DNA結(jié)合蛋白(CHD)變異與兒童發(fā)育遲緩、認(rèn)知損害有關(guān),而CHD8是其候選功能基因,提示從CHD8與β鏈蛋白(β-catenin)的作用入手,可深入探討孤獨(dú)癥的致病機(jī)制[8]。
此外,SHAN家族中SHANK2、SHANK3與孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生密切相關(guān)。研究表明,大腦某些區(qū)域中谷氨酸鹽受體上調(diào)是由SHANK2突變引起,ASD行為表現(xiàn)與SHANK2突變引起的表現(xiàn)具有一致性[9]。SHANK3基因rs9616915位點(diǎn)多態(tài)性變異直接影響突觸功能,證實(shí)SHANK3與ASD患病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)有關(guān)[10]。
另外,有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)了與ASD相關(guān)的離子通道蛋白的基因突變,如SCN1A、CACNA1C和KCNMA1等[11]。雖然大量研究發(fā)現(xiàn)了與孤獨(dú)癥相關(guān)的遺傳因素,但這些遺傳因素僅能解釋10%~30%的孤獨(dú)癥病因,并未發(fā)現(xiàn)確切的孤獨(dú)癥致病基因,遺傳因素的致病機(jī)制仍未明確[12]。
藥物、重金屬、微生物感染引起免疫系統(tǒng)的激活,導(dǎo)致妊娠期母親及胎兒體內(nèi)某些成分的改變[13],進(jìn)而影響胎兒大腦發(fā)育。母親體內(nèi)升高的細(xì)胞因子水平可通過胎盤及血-腦脊液屏障使免疫興奮毒性進(jìn)入胎兒體內(nèi),引起胎兒神經(jīng)-內(nèi)分泌-免疫軸系統(tǒng)穩(wěn)態(tài)遭到破壞,可能是孤獨(dú)癥的病因之一[14]。
目前發(fā)現(xiàn)孤獨(dú)癥患兒中存在免疫功能異?,F(xiàn)象。有研究表明,73.3%的ASD患兒中存在調(diào)節(jié)T淋巴細(xì)胞水平低下[15-16]。此外,一項(xiàng)關(guān)于腦反應(yīng)性抗體水平的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),孤獨(dú)癥患兒母親體內(nèi)腦反應(yīng)性抗體的水平較正常兒童母親高4倍,而該抗體主要分布在與孤獨(dú)癥關(guān)系密切的額葉皮質(zhì)、海馬和小腦區(qū)[17],提示孤獨(dú)癥患兒的母親自體免疫水平影響子代的自體免疫狀態(tài),從而引發(fā)孤獨(dú)癥。此外,與智力障礙、精神分裂癥、孤獨(dú)癥相關(guān)的IL-1β基因、受體、受體相關(guān)蛋白水平的增高,會對孤獨(dú)癥患兒的刻板行為和認(rèn)知行為產(chǎn)生影響[18-19]。
父親從事體力勞動、神經(jīng)障礙疾病家族史、精神刺激、家庭氣氛緊張等家庭因素,以及重金屬污染、孕婦不良生活環(huán)境等,均會增加孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn),其中家庭環(huán)境不良會使兒童情緒和行為障礙發(fā)生率明顯增加,孤獨(dú)癥嚴(yán)重程度與患兒體內(nèi)重金屬含量具有相關(guān)性[20-22]。有研究表明,胎兒期、嬰兒期暴露于含高濃度PM2.5和PM10的空氣中,未來發(fā)生孤獨(dú)癥的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加[23]。因此,孤獨(dú)癥的評估應(yīng)提前至出生時(shí)乃至妊娠期[24]。
由于腸道神經(jīng)元與大腦神經(jīng)元在細(xì)胞類型、神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)及感受器方面相似,因此腸道也稱人的“第二腦”,即腸腦,其與大腦之間通過腦-腸軸雙向互通從而進(jìn)行連接[25]。腸腦可以影響人的中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng),進(jìn)而影響人的情感、認(rèn)知和行為[26],孤獨(dú)癥可能與腦-腸軸有關(guān)[27]。其中腸道微生物可能扮演重要角色[28],腸道微生物的整體組成或某些菌群可能對ASD的發(fā)生產(chǎn)生影響[29]。目前已發(fā)現(xiàn)了疑似與ASD相關(guān)的腸道微生物,主要包括梭菌屬細(xì)菌、脫硫弧菌屬細(xì)菌、薩特菌屬細(xì)菌、酵母菌[30]。據(jù)報(bào)道,正常人腸道中幾乎檢測不出脫硫弧菌屬和薩特菌屬細(xì)菌,而約50%的ASD患兒可檢測到脫硫弧菌屬細(xì)菌,并且50%伴有胃腸功能障礙的ASD患兒腸道中可檢測到薩特菌屬細(xì)菌[31-32]。
此外,有研究顯示,糞便中有超過90%的DNA序列來自于主要屬于擬桿菌門和厚壁菌門的腸道微生物,而孤獨(dú)癥患兒腸道中的擬桿菌門和厚壁菌門的比例低于正常人[33]。
腸型是以擬桿菌屬、普氏菌屬和瘤胃球菌屬為主的類型[34],其幾乎不受其他因素的影響,具有穩(wěn)定性,可用于區(qū)別個(gè)體的腸道微生物特征[35]。鑒于此,有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),孤獨(dú)癥患兒擁有獨(dú)特的腸型,主要表現(xiàn)在以擬桿菌屬和瘤胃球菌屬腸型為主,缺少普氏菌屬腸型[36]。
腸道微生物主要通過血液系統(tǒng)、內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)和神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)對大腦和行為產(chǎn)生影響,其相互作用構(gòu)成了微生物-腸道-大腦軸(菌-腸-腦軸)[37-38]。腸道微生物除影響人的生理健康和記憶外,還可能通過神經(jīng)化學(xué)物質(zhì)的變化影響人的心理和行為[39-43]。對孤獨(dú)癥樣小鼠研究發(fā)現(xiàn),其腸道通透性增加,腸道微生物的代謝產(chǎn)物能進(jìn)入血液系統(tǒng),從而改變宿主特定的行為[44]。由此可見,孤獨(dú)癥與腸道微生物影響有關(guān)。
此外,剖宮產(chǎn)與自然分娩出生的嬰兒腸道菌群存在顯著差異[45-47],而剖宮產(chǎn)是誘發(fā)ASD的影響因素之一[48]。臨床診斷發(fā)現(xiàn),多數(shù)孤獨(dú)癥患兒發(fā)病在3歲以內(nèi),甚至部分孤獨(dú)癥患兒在1歲前發(fā)病,推測孤獨(dú)癥可能是由于嬰兒早期腸道微生物的發(fā)育異常導(dǎo)致,尤其是剖宮產(chǎn)患兒。
有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),與無胃腸道異常的ASD患兒相比,胃腸道異常的ASD患兒更易發(fā)生行為問題,行為癥狀可為ASD患兒胃腸道異常的篩查提供新途徑[49]。
臨床調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn),孤獨(dú)癥患兒對感官刺激存在普遍敏感的現(xiàn)象,而且對食物有特別的喜好,飲食單一,偏愛富含脂肪、高糖、淀粉類食物及零食、加工食物,厭惡多數(shù)水果、蔬菜和蛋白質(zhì)類食物,普遍存在偏食、挑食的習(xí)慣[50-52]。據(jù)估計(jì),90%的孤獨(dú)癥患兒存在飲食問題[53]。孤獨(dú)癥患兒的這種飲食特點(diǎn)常由嬰兒期就開始,并不是在患病之后才出現(xiàn)的。目前,尚不清楚孤獨(dú)癥患兒的飲食特點(diǎn)是否與其照料和監(jiān)管人的行為有直接關(guān)系,仍需進(jìn)一步的研究。此外,典型的西方式飲食習(xí)慣可能促進(jìn)孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生[54]。母親的飲食習(xí)慣也會對兒童的飲食習(xí)慣有所影響[55]。出生前、期間或出生后不久是孤獨(dú)癥發(fā)病的高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)時(shí)間[56]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),母親在妊娠期食用含可卡因和乙醇的食物會提高兒童患病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[57],母親在圍生期食用高脂、高糖食物會對后代發(fā)育有所影響,也會使后代更偏向于高脂、高糖的食物[58]。由此可見,要降低兒童患孤獨(dú)癥的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),改變孤獨(dú)癥患兒的飲食習(xí)慣,母親在妊娠期即應(yīng)注意飲食習(xí)慣。此外,營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)的攝入與飲食習(xí)慣相關(guān),食物中的營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)對維持人體正常的生理和心理健康至關(guān)重要。臨床研究發(fā)現(xiàn),心理、行為發(fā)生改變與缺乏維生素、礦物質(zhì)等多種營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)相關(guān),例如,B族維生素和微量元素等營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)缺乏,可能對大腦的正常功能產(chǎn)生影響[59-61]。孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生可能與營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)缺乏,影響大腦正常功能發(fā)育有關(guān),但是,尚不清楚孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生是否與其飲食習(xí)慣直接相關(guān)。
對1 253例孤獨(dú)癥患兒調(diào)查顯示,16.3%的患兒出現(xiàn)35種代謝異常,主要以酮性雙羧酸尿或輕度酮性雙羧酸尿,輕度酮尿癥,乳糖及半乳糖水平升高,輕度非酮性雙羧酸尿,高水平賴氨酸、半胱氨酸、甲基丙二酸、四羥基苯乳酸、三羥基丙酸、四羥基苯丙酮酸,甲基丙二酸血癥為主[62]。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),孤獨(dú)癥患兒血清鞘脂類代謝產(chǎn)物植物鞘氨醇(PSO)和1-磷酸鞘氨醇(SIP)水平與正常兒童存在明顯差異,提示孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生可能與鞘脂類代謝異常有一定關(guān)聯(lián)[63]。部分存在代謝障礙疾病的孤獨(dú)癥患兒體內(nèi)5羥色胺(5-HT)水平升高,如不能及時(shí)有效代謝,會影響大腦發(fā)育,使下丘腦室旁核分泌催產(chǎn)素降低和杏仁核中降血鈣素相關(guān)基因多肽(CGRP)增加,從而對孤獨(dú)癥患兒社會互動行為產(chǎn)生影響[64]。
葉酸,即維生素B9,為水溶性維生素。葉酸對胎兒神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的發(fā)育尤為重要,葉酸缺乏時(shí)會造成神經(jīng)管畸形、免疫功能低下、發(fā)育性障礙,甚至智力損傷等。有研究已經(jīng)證實(shí),孕婦是葉酸缺乏的高危人群,妊娠期葉酸攝入量不足,其后代患孤獨(dú)癥的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加[65]。但是,近期研究發(fā)現(xiàn),母親妊娠期葉酸水平過高,也會增加新生兒患ASD的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[66]。因此,葉酸的攝入量顯得尤為重要,這將為早期預(yù)防孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生提供新思路。但是,關(guān)于葉酸與孤獨(dú)癥發(fā)病機(jī)制較為復(fù)雜,除以往認(rèn)為與葉酸能夠促進(jìn)神經(jīng)干細(xì)胞(NSCs)增殖,調(diào)節(jié)NSCs周期、向神經(jīng)元分化等因素相關(guān)外,近幾年發(fā)現(xiàn)孤獨(dú)癥患兒表觀遺傳有所改變,其母親有葉酸載體基因及DNA甲基化的改變[65]。總之,葉酸與孤獨(dú)癥的機(jī)制尚有待進(jìn)一步研究。
孤獨(dú)癥患兒顱腦影像學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)有所改變[67],尤其是與語言、溝通、思維、認(rèn)知相關(guān)的左側(cè)大腦半球(優(yōu)勢半球)和額顳葉、小腦、海馬和杏仁核存在細(xì)胞結(jié)構(gòu)的變化,這些變化與孤獨(dú)癥的核心癥狀相關(guān),這可能是導(dǎo)致孤獨(dú)癥的重要原因。
內(nèi)感覺的發(fā)生是基于大腦皮質(zhì)和皮質(zhì)下區(qū)域內(nèi)部傳入的多感覺連接和統(tǒng)合。目前研究提示,ASD患兒內(nèi)感覺器反射減退[68]。開展包含神經(jīng)影像學(xué)、心理生理學(xué)以及理論模型下的自我評價(jià)的多維研究,可為了解內(nèi)感覺差異與ASD的行為、認(rèn)知特征關(guān)系提供依據(jù)[69-70]。
有研究報(bào)道,高齡孕婦(>35歲)、妊娠期吸煙史、毒物接觸史、疾病和異常史、感冒、服用藥物、劇烈嘔吐、陰道感染或出血、情緒暴躁等是子代發(fā)生ASD的危險(xiǎn)因素[71],約50%的孤獨(dú)癥患兒的母親曾有產(chǎn)前并發(fā)癥[72]。此外,祖父母晚育也會使第3代患孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加[73]。
綜上所述,孤獨(dú)癥的病因復(fù)雜多樣,遺傳因素、免疫因素、腸道微生物、代謝、內(nèi)感覺等與孤獨(dú)癥的發(fā)病具有相關(guān)性,雖然目前尚未明確孤獨(dú)癥致病機(jī)制,但是遺傳因素和神經(jīng)生物學(xué)因素相關(guān)的研究已普遍得到認(rèn)可,近年來更多學(xué)者致力于免疫因素、代謝因素、內(nèi)感覺以及腸道微生物與孤獨(dú)癥關(guān)系的研究,這將為孤獨(dú)癥的研究方向提供新的突破點(diǎn)。相信通過進(jìn)一步深入地研究,與孤獨(dú)癥相關(guān)的致病機(jī)制將會得到進(jìn)一步闡明。
本文文獻(xiàn)檢索策略:
本研究以孤獨(dú)癥、病因等為關(guān)鍵詞,檢索中國知網(wǎng)、PubMed數(shù)據(jù)庫中近年相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)。
作者貢獻(xiàn):張玉進(jìn)行文章的構(gòu)思與設(shè)計(jì)、研究的實(shí)施與可行性分析;張玉、黃浩宇撰寫論文并修訂;劉蕓負(fù)責(zé)文章的質(zhì)量控制及審校,對文章整體負(fù)責(zé)、監(jiān)督管理。
本文無利益沖突。
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(本文編輯:吳立波)
Research Progress of the Etiology of Autism
ZHANGYu,LIUYun*,HUANGHao-yu
DepartmentofRehabilitation,KunmingChildren′sHospital,Kunming650034,China
*Correspondingauthor:LIUYun,Chiefphysician;E-mail:liuyun@etyy.cn
Autism,a disease of developmental disorder,is mainly characterized by obstacles to social communication,communication barriers,narrow interests and repetitive stereotyped behaviors.Autism is one of the most serious public problems affecting children′s health worldwide.At present,the etiology of autism is not clear.The paper reviews the recent research progress of the etiology of autism,and explores its mechanism from perspectives of genetic and immunological factors,environmental factors,intestines and enteric micro-organisms,diet and nutrition,metabolism,folic acid,neurobiological factors,and inner senses.
Autistic disorder;Risk factors;Heredity;Metabolism
R 749.94
A
10.3969/j.issn.1007-9572.2017.11.024
2016-10-02;
2017-01-12)
650034云南省昆明市兒童醫(yī)院康復(fù)科
*通信作者:劉蕓,主任醫(yī)師;E-mail:liuyun@etyy.cn
張玉,劉蕓,黃浩宇.孤獨(dú)癥病因?qū)W的研究進(jìn)展[J].中國全科醫(yī)學(xué),2017,20(11):1392-1397.[www.chinagp.net]
ZHANG Y,LIU Y,HUANG H Y.Research progress of the etiology of autism[J].Chinese General Practice,2017,20(11):1392-1397.