馮雪伊,沈 敏
(1.司法鑒定科學(xué)研究院 上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室 上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái),上海200063;2.上海市公安局 靜安分局 刑偵支隊(duì)刑事科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所,上海200070)
鑒定綜述Review
乙醇生物標(biāo)志物的研究及應(yīng)用進(jìn)展
馮雪伊1,2,沈 敏1
(1.司法鑒定科學(xué)研究院 上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室 上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái),上海200063;2.上海市公安局 靜安分局 刑偵支隊(duì)刑事科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所,上海200070)
酒精濫用已成為重大的公共衛(wèi)生問(wèn)題,是世界衛(wèi)生組織公布的第三大致死致殘?jiān)獌?,因而在所涉交通事故、酗酒肇事、職業(yè)衛(wèi)生、毒品濫用、毒物中毒等案(事)件中,體內(nèi)乙醇檢測(cè)及評(píng)價(jià)已成為法醫(yī)毒物鑒定的重要任務(wù)。與乙醇相比,其體內(nèi)生物標(biāo)志物的檢測(cè)表現(xiàn)出更多的優(yōu)勢(shì),具有靈敏度高、特異性強(qiáng)、檢測(cè)時(shí)限寬、鑒別能力強(qiáng)、應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域廣等特征。綜述了乙醇的直接生物標(biāo)志物乙基葡萄糖醛酸苷、硫酸乙酯和脂肪酸乙酯的研究及應(yīng)用情況,以期推動(dòng)法醫(yī)毒物鑒定的進(jìn)步,為訴訟及社會(huì)證明活動(dòng)提供更加科學(xué)、可靠、有效的證據(jù)信息。
乙醇生物標(biāo)志物;酒精濫用;乙基葡萄糖醛酸苷;硫酸乙酯;脂肪酸乙酯
酒精(乙醇)飲料的濫用是全世界廣泛關(guān)注的公共衛(wèi)生問(wèn)題,過(guò)量飲酒不僅會(huì)造成個(gè)體生理機(jī)能損害,還會(huì)影響正常的行為判斷能力從而帶來(lái)社會(huì)、經(jīng)濟(jì)、法律等一系列相關(guān)問(wèn)題[1]。中國(guó)人口基數(shù)大、酒文化源遠(yuǎn)流長(zhǎng),現(xiàn)代化的生活方式促進(jìn)了酒精的需求和消耗,加之國(guó)家對(duì)酒管控政策相對(duì)薄弱,我國(guó)飲酒人數(shù)日益增長(zhǎng),為酒精相關(guān)問(wèn)題的產(chǎn)生提供了環(huán)境條件?!读~刀》公布了中國(guó)人均飲酒量自1987年以來(lái)翻升三倍以上[2];2013年全球疾病負(fù)擔(dān)報(bào)告顯示,中國(guó)15歲至49歲人群中因飲酒導(dǎo)致的傷殘調(diào)整壽命年損失數(shù)最大,造成年均12萬(wàn)人死亡[3]。常規(guī)的酒精檢測(cè)限于乙醇清除速率快(10 mg/dL·h[4]),一次過(guò)量飲酒24 h后便難以檢出,因而單憑血液乙醇濃度在某些情況下無(wú)法認(rèn)定個(gè)體攝酒與否。與此同時(shí),利用受試者的生物樣本對(duì)乙醇生物標(biāo)志物進(jìn)行檢測(cè),可區(qū)分日常飲酒、酗酒、慢性酒精依賴以及外源性乙醇污染等情況;在死后毒物學(xué)領(lǐng)域,則可為揭示血液乙醇來(lái)源,判斷生前飲酒和死后生成等提供輔助證據(jù)。
國(guó)內(nèi)外專家學(xué)者將乙醇生物標(biāo)志物分為兩類:間接生物標(biāo)志物和直接生物標(biāo)志物。其中間接生物標(biāo)志物是指一類能指示因酗酒引起的正常生理過(guò)程或病理過(guò)程的改變、抑或是影響藥物反應(yīng)的物質(zhì),常見(jiàn)的有丙氨酸轉(zhuǎn)氨酶(Alanine aminotransferase,ALT)、天門(mén)冬氨酸轉(zhuǎn)氨酶(Aspartate aminotransferase,AST)、平均紅細(xì)胞體積(Mean Corpuscular Volume,MCV)、γ-谷氨酰轉(zhuǎn)移酶(γ-glutamyl transferase,γ-GT)、糖缺乏性轉(zhuǎn)鐵蛋白(Carbohydrate-deficient transferring, CDT)、總血清唾液酸(Total serum sialic acid,TSA)等。由于此類標(biāo)志物不是由乙醇代謝形成,而是由酒精性器官損傷而間接產(chǎn)生,僅能標(biāo)志長(zhǎng)期酗酒行為。在診斷酒精相關(guān)障礙方面的敏感性及特異性有限,還受性別、年齡以及非飲酒導(dǎo)致的共病障礙(酶水平升高)等影響,在實(shí)際使用中往往出現(xiàn)假陰性或假陽(yáng)性等問(wèn)題[5-7]。直接生物標(biāo)志物為酒精的代謝產(chǎn)物,僅在有乙醇攝入的情況下存在,在體內(nèi)停留時(shí)間長(zhǎng)于乙醇,主要包括乙基葡萄糖醛酸苷(Ethyl glucuronide,EtG)、硫酸 乙 酯 (Ethyl sulfate,EtS)、脂肪酸乙酯(Fatty acid ethyl esters, FAEEs)和磷脂酰乙醇(Phosophatidylethanol,PEth)。 直接標(biāo)志物不受疾病、生理因素影響,敏感性和特異性較間接標(biāo)志物大大提高,能區(qū)分各類飲酒情況,包括少量飲酒行為,在戒癮監(jiān)測(cè)、法醫(yī)學(xué)鑒定、駕駛能力評(píng)估、復(fù)職檢測(cè)、子女監(jiān)護(hù)權(quán)判定、肝臟移植評(píng)估、胎兒酒精綜合癥研究等領(lǐng)域均有所涉及,為預(yù)防、診斷、治療相關(guān)酒精問(wèn)題提供了全新的思路和方法[8-9]。本文將圍繞常用于鑒別酒精濫用的直接生物標(biāo)志物EtG、EtS和FAEEs的研究及應(yīng)用進(jìn)展,作一綜述。
酒精攝入人體后,大部分經(jīng)氧化途徑由肝臟代謝(90%~95%),或經(jīng)腎臟、皮膚及呼吸道排出體外(5%)。僅少部分乙醇經(jīng)非氧化途徑轉(zhuǎn)變成乙基葡萄糖醛酸苷(Ethyl glucuronide,EtG)(約 0.5%~1.6%)和硫酸乙酯(Ethyl sulfate,EtS)(約 0.1%)。 乙基葡萄糖醛酸在UDP-葡萄糖醛酸轉(zhuǎn)移酶(UGT)的催化下與乙醇共軛生成EtG,胞質(zhì)中的硫酸磺基轉(zhuǎn)移酶催化硫酸與磷酸腺苷共軛生成EtS,乙醇的清除速率遠(yuǎn)大于EtG,EtG能夠在乙醇無(wú)法檢出的情況下成為酒精攝入的有力證據(jù)[10-11]。EtG和EtS均為高靈敏標(biāo)志物,即使在低水平的乙醇暴露下同樣能夠檢出[12]。
1.2.1 尿液分析
EtG主要經(jīng)尿排除,占攝入酒精量的0.02%~0.06%,早在1995年Schmidt等首先在尿液中檢測(cè)到 EtG;2004年,Helander等在人體尿液中測(cè)得EtS。人體攝入0.25 g/kg(乙醇攝入量/體重)酒精后,尿中EtG和EtS的檢測(cè)時(shí)限可達(dá)24 h,當(dāng)攝入量為0.5 g/kg時(shí),檢測(cè)時(shí)限可達(dá)48 h[13-15]。文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道乙醇在人體內(nèi)消除后3~5 d內(nèi)仍能檢出EtG,有利于延長(zhǎng)酒精攝入的檢測(cè)時(shí)限[16-17]。EtG和EtS的代謝形成途徑不同,因此在認(rèn)定近期酒精攝入的案件當(dāng)中,同時(shí)檢測(cè)尿中的EtG和EtS有助于提高分析方法的可靠性。Helander等[16]對(duì)一名健康男性飲酒者進(jìn)行尿液分析,空腹單次飲酒0.5 g/kg后,乙醇在2 h出現(xiàn)峰值濃度,于8 h后難以檢出。EtG與EtS的濃度-時(shí)間曲線的走勢(shì)相似,EtS的濃度略高于EtG,兩者均于攝酒后1 h檢出,峰值濃度均出現(xiàn)在4 h。檢測(cè)時(shí)限相近,飲酒后29 h仍能檢出,32 h后無(wú)法檢出。這與Wurst等[18]報(bào)道的結(jié)果有所差異,平均飲酒0.2 g/kg后,EtG和EtS的尿液檢測(cè)時(shí)限為36 h,導(dǎo)致的原因可能包括個(gè)體飲酒量的差異、機(jī)體代謝能力的差異等因素。另外,Helander等還分析了54例臨床酒精檢測(cè)的尿樣,EtG與EtS的濃度之間存在良好的相關(guān)性(r2=0.839;p<0.0001),平均濃度比(CEtG∶CEtS)約為 1.5。 Kummer等[19]對(duì) 27 例攝酒志愿者進(jìn)行尿液分析,EtG和EtS濃度相關(guān)性高(r=0.996,p<0.001)。EtG和EtS均為乙醇的直接代謝產(chǎn)物,是尿液分析的主要檢測(cè)對(duì)象,具有較高的檢測(cè)靈敏度,尤其在樣品收集延遲的情況下,乙醇因快速代謝而難以檢出,EtG及EtS的檢測(cè)分析就具有重要的證據(jù)價(jià)值。但是,較高的靈敏度容易導(dǎo)致假陽(yáng)性結(jié)果,此時(shí)設(shè)定合理的檢測(cè)界限值(閾值,cut-off)至關(guān)重要。目前國(guó)際上沒(méi)有統(tǒng)一的尿液閾值標(biāo)準(zhǔn),一般認(rèn)為 0.1 μg/mL EtG、0.05 μg/mL EtS 能夠有效排除反復(fù)飲酒情況[20];同時(shí)對(duì)禁酒者的尿液分析發(fā)現(xiàn),0.1 μg/mL EtG[21]和 0.1 μg/mL EtS[22]可區(qū)分非飲酒和飲酒情況。
1.2.2 血液分析
EtG和EtS的血液分析窗口較短,低劑量酒精攝入下達(dá)10 h,高劑量重復(fù)攝入下可達(dá)24 h[23-25],血中EtS的檢測(cè)時(shí)限為乙醇的兩倍,而EtG的檢測(cè)時(shí)限更長(zhǎng)。H?iseth等[15]對(duì)10名空腹飲酒0.5 g/kg的志愿者進(jìn)行血尿分析,血中EtG的峰值濃度時(shí)間在4 h,乙醇峰值濃度時(shí)間為0.5~2.0h;EtG的消除半衰期為2.2 h,使得EtG比乙醇的可檢測(cè)時(shí)限更長(zhǎng),血中乙醇檢出時(shí)限為5.0~7.0 h,EtG的檢出時(shí)限可達(dá)10~14 h。尿液的EtG濃度水平明顯高于血液,約為血中EtG濃度的145倍。Halter等[23]對(duì)13名適量飲酒的志愿者進(jìn)行血尿分析,血中EtG和EtS的峰值濃度時(shí)間分別為4 h和3 h,與乙醇峰值濃度時(shí)間分別相差2.3 h和1.2 h;尿中EtG和EtS的峰值濃度時(shí)間分別為6.2 h和5.3 h。雖然尿液的檢測(cè)窗口更長(zhǎng)、濃度更高,然而尿液分析存在一定的不可控因素,如個(gè)體頻繁飲水、頻繁排尿等均會(huì)導(dǎo)致尿液中待分析物的濃度降低,造成假陰性結(jié)果。同時(shí),血液中兩種物質(zhì)的檢測(cè)時(shí)長(zhǎng)通常為24 h,血液的短時(shí)效性更有利于認(rèn)定個(gè)體近期飲酒甚至當(dāng)下飲酒的情況。在Lostia等[25]的報(bào)道中,19位飲酒者分成兩組,分別給與了不同的飲酒量0.76 g/kg和1.53 g/kg,EtG和EtS的血、尿峰值濃度時(shí)間隨著劑量的提高均出現(xiàn)延后現(xiàn)象,而H?iseth等[26]對(duì)兩種劑量0.5 g/kg和1.0 g/kg的酒精代謝物研究顯示,高劑量組血液峰值濃度時(shí)間有所延后,尿液峰值濃度沒(méi)有變化。此種劑量影響藥代動(dòng)力學(xué)因素應(yīng)受到重視,有助于更客觀、真實(shí)地反應(yīng)濃度隨時(shí)間變化趨勢(shì),從而進(jìn)行相關(guān)計(jì)算和模型建立。相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道的血、尿中EtG和EtS的藥代數(shù)據(jù)見(jiàn)表1。
1.2.3 毛發(fā)分析
毛發(fā)作為一種反映長(zhǎng)程信息的檢材,檢測(cè)窗口長(zhǎng)(數(shù)月至數(shù)年),根據(jù)人體毛發(fā)的生長(zhǎng)速度,能提供酒精攝入史、區(qū)分日常飲酒與酗酒等重要信息,彌補(bǔ)了血、尿分析的不足。EtG主要通過(guò)汗液侵蝕發(fā)干或通過(guò)血液擴(kuò)散到生長(zhǎng)細(xì)胞的途徑進(jìn)入毛發(fā)。EtG進(jìn)入毛發(fā)以后能穩(wěn)定存在,但由于其分子具有弱酸性(pKa=2.84),EtG以極小的速率進(jìn)入至毛發(fā),毛發(fā)中的EtG含量少,需要高靈敏的分析手段。近年來(lái),毛發(fā)中EtG已成為判斷酒精攝入與否的重要標(biāo)志,高靈敏的分析技術(shù)不斷涌現(xiàn),檢出限已從原來(lái)的20~50 pg/mg降低至0.7 pg/mg[27-28],然而要鑒別長(zhǎng)期酗酒、日常飲酒以及非飲酒情況,還需標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的界值來(lái)限定,從而防止假陰性或者假陽(yáng)性結(jié)果的產(chǎn)生。國(guó)際毛發(fā)分析協(xié)會(huì) (Society of Hair Testing,SoHT)將7pg/mg作為區(qū)分飲酒(乙醇攝入量>10g/d)和非飲酒的閾值,也是鑒別戒酒者是否復(fù)飲的一個(gè)重要界定指標(biāo);同時(shí)將30 pg/mg作為區(qū)分長(zhǎng)期酗酒(乙醇攝入量>60 g/d)與日常飲酒的閾值[29]。此外,不同學(xué)者在結(jié)合文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道及實(shí)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)的基礎(chǔ)上總結(jié)出了不同的臨界值。如Kharbouche等[30]檢測(cè)了125個(gè)受試者頭發(fā)樣本,設(shè)定9pg/mg為區(qū)分風(fēng)險(xiǎn)性飲酒(乙醇攝入量>20/30 g/d)與非飲酒的閾值,25 pg/mg為長(zhǎng)期酗酒(乙醇攝入量>60 g/d)的閾值。Politi等[30]使用飲酒問(wèn)卷調(diào)查表(Drinking Questionaire)進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)分析后得出4 pg/mg和5 pg/mg分別作為鑒別飲酒量(乙醇攝入量>30 g/d及40 g/d)的閾值[31]。Stewart等[32]對(duì)200名肝病患者進(jìn)行毛發(fā)分析,設(shè)定15 pg/mg作為飲酒量(乙醇攝入量>28 g/d)的閾值,分析結(jié)果準(zhǔn)確度高,同時(shí)指出性別及疾病因素(如肝硬化)對(duì)毛發(fā)中的EtG含量檢測(cè)有所影響[32]。最近有學(xué)者指出7 pg/mg作為區(qū)分禁酒與飲酒的閾值還有待進(jìn)一步考察[33-34]。
1.2.4 指甲分析
指甲與毛發(fā)同為硬質(zhì)角蛋白結(jié)構(gòu),能夠穩(wěn)定固化外源性物質(zhì),不受代謝及排泄影響,檢測(cè)窗口長(zhǎng)。與尿液檢材相比,指甲與毛發(fā)更能提供豐富的飲酒史信息,有利于鑒別長(zhǎng)期飲酒和短期酗酒等情況,同時(shí)在戒酒治療監(jiān)測(cè)、臨床酒精檢測(cè)等方面有所幫助。據(jù)Morini等[35]報(bào)道,毛發(fā)可提供的飲酒信息僅限于長(zhǎng)期過(guò)量飲酒(15~20 g/d),無(wú)法甄別短期酗酒情況,而指甲中EtG的濃度遠(yuǎn)高于毛發(fā),有利于區(qū)分不同的飲酒習(xí)慣,提供更多的酒精濫用信息。Berger等[36]對(duì)447名受試者進(jìn)行EtG檢測(cè),毛發(fā)中的EtG含量為0~180.5 pg/mg,指甲中的含量為0~397.08 pg/mg;Berger指出指甲中的EtG的定量分析能夠區(qū)分不同程度的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)飲酒情況,對(duì)鑒別高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)飲酒及持續(xù)性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)飲酒人群的準(zhǔn)確度分別為100%和82%~86%,高于毛發(fā)。
1.2.5 其他生物檢材
非傳統(tǒng)生物樣品如胚胎組織、胎糞、玻璃體液等也是EtG和EtS的重要檢材。孕期酒精暴露會(huì)導(dǎo)致胎兒酒精譜系障礙(FAS),引起新生兒嚴(yán)重的健康問(wèn)題如顱面畸形、生長(zhǎng)阻滯、認(rèn)知以及社交障礙等,因此在認(rèn)定孕期飲酒的證據(jù)信息顯得尤為重要。當(dāng)新生兒出現(xiàn)FAS癥狀,孕婦較多隱瞞飲酒史而耽誤治療,往往需要通過(guò)胚胎組織進(jìn)行檢測(cè)。Goecke等[37]對(duì)577名妊娠后女性的胎糞進(jìn)行乙醇標(biāo)志物檢測(cè),發(fā)現(xiàn)僅有對(duì)EtG的分析符合飲酒史的記錄,同時(shí)設(shè)定120 ng/g(EtG/胎糞)為孕期飲酒的標(biāo)志,具有較高的準(zhǔn)確度。Morini等[38]分析了70份早期胎盤(pán)和胚胎組織(各35份)中的EtG和EtS,兩者的檢測(cè)濃度較高,且兩者在胎盤(pán)中的濃度均高于胚胎組織,證實(shí)EtG與EtS均能夠穿透胎盤(pán)屏障進(jìn)入胚胎組織,強(qiáng)調(diào)EtG和EtS的來(lái)源不僅限于胎兒代謝產(chǎn)物更包括母體代謝產(chǎn)物,為孕期飲酒提供有力證據(jù)。
玻璃體液中的EtG和EtS也是酒精分析的重要內(nèi)容,是死后乙醇檢測(cè)的主要手段。死后生物檢材中的乙醇濃度受多種因素影響而發(fā)生改變,如乙醇的生物轉(zhuǎn)換導(dǎo)致的濃度下降、血液腐敗以及上消化道擴(kuò)散導(dǎo)致的乙醇濃度升高等,成為衡量死前酒精攝入的主要難題。眼睛的解剖學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)決定其具有減速擴(kuò)散的機(jī)能,因此相對(duì)于其他生物檢材,外源性物質(zhì)進(jìn)入玻璃體液能夠穩(wěn)定存在,較少受尸體腐敗影響[39]。Thierauf等[40]分析了人死后血液、尿液以及玻璃體液中的乙醇、EtG和EtS,發(fā)現(xiàn)血、尿中均存在乙醇、EtG和EtS,玻璃體液中只存在EtG和EtS,且兩者在玻璃體液中的濃度水平較高,表明EtG和EtS系死者生前飲酒后代謝生成并進(jìn)入玻璃體液,證實(shí)了死者在生前有飲酒情況。
EtG和EtS均為極性小分子,pKa分別為2.84和-3.14,因而血、尿分析無(wú)法有效適用于液液提?。↙LE)或固相萃?。⊿PE);尿液直接稀釋進(jìn)樣法容易摻雜大量雜質(zhì)、引起基底效應(yīng)偏高,同時(shí)會(huì)對(duì)儀器產(chǎn)生傷害;沉淀蛋白法是EtG和EtS的主要前處理方法[23,41],沉淀蛋白后上清液用液相色譜-串聯(lián)質(zhì)譜(LC-MS/MS)分析后沒(méi)有明顯的基質(zhì)干擾[42]。Freire等[43]采用微波輔助提取技術(shù)(MAE)處理尿液樣品中的EtG,操作簡(jiǎn)便快速,大大縮短提取時(shí)間、節(jié)省溶劑消耗的同時(shí)保證較高的回收效率,但是該方法采用了氣相色譜-質(zhì)譜(GC-MS)進(jìn)行分析,樣品需要衍生化處理且方法靈敏度較低(5 ng/mL)。MAE同樣適用于毛發(fā)樣品處理[44],其他常見(jiàn)處理方法主要為 SPE[27,45-46]、超聲提取法[47-49]以及兩者的結(jié)合使用[27,50-52],固相萃取柱主要有氨基柱、OASIS MAX、Clean Screen(EtG Carbon);頂空-固相微萃取法(HSSPME)也是毛發(fā)處理的重要方法,常與氣相色譜-串聯(lián)質(zhì)譜法(GC-MS/MS)聯(lián)用[53-55]。 指甲、胚胎組織、胎糞以及玻璃體液的檢材處理方法則主要集中于沉淀蛋白[38,40]、超聲提取[35,56]、SPE[57-58]等。
生物檢材中EtG和EtS的分析手段主要為GC-MS[43-44,59-60]、LC-MS[13,61],后期更多采用 LC-MS/MS[19,22,35,40,58,62-64],避免氣相色譜的衍生化處理,同時(shí)提高了分析方法的靈敏度。Cappelle等[65]比較了GC-MS和GC-MS/MS兩種方法分析毛發(fā)中的EtG,檢出限(LOD)和定量限(LOQ):GC-MS/MS 為0.005 pg/mg和 0.017pg/mg;GC-MS為 0.022pg/mg和0.075pg/mg。Delphine等[66]建立了GC-MS/MS法分析毛發(fā)中的EtG,并與GC-MS法比較,兩者定量結(jié)果偏差較大,在區(qū)分非飲酒和適量飲酒人群(閾值7 pg/mg)時(shí),GC-MS/MS方法靈敏度更高。LC-MS/MS在分析血液中的EtG時(shí),其靈敏度與GC-MS/MS相比沒(méi)有較大差別,然而其無(wú)需衍生化處理,且定量精密度更高[64,67]。
LC-MS/MS分析多數(shù)采用反相色譜/負(fù)離子電噴霧模式(ESI)監(jiān)測(cè),由于EtG和EtS極性較大,只有在高水相比例下才能獲得較好的保留,然而在電離過(guò)程中,小分子分析物向氣相轉(zhuǎn)移需要在高有機(jī)相比例的協(xié)助下帶電,水相比例較多不利于電離的促進(jìn),同時(shí)增加了基質(zhì)干擾的可能[18,63]。許多文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道柱后添加有機(jī)溶劑有利于促進(jìn)電離進(jìn)程,提高分析靈敏度[27,35,40,56,68-69],2-丙醇、乙腈為主要的柱后添加溶劑。為避免電噴霧離子源對(duì)分析靈敏度的影響、同時(shí)簡(jiǎn)化分析步驟,有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道采用大氣壓化學(xué)電離源(APCI)作為ESI的替代源,在分析水性組分時(shí)表現(xiàn)出較好的響應(yīng)效果,獲得更高的檢測(cè)靈敏度,不受離子抑制效應(yīng)的影響[22,70]。此外,負(fù)化學(xué)電離源(NCI)常用于GC-MS/MS,替代了之前的電子轟擊源(EI),能大大提高毛發(fā)中EtG的檢測(cè)靈敏度[52,55]。
表3 文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道不同生物檢材中EtG和EtS的分析方法
FAEEs是乙醇經(jīng)酶促作用與體內(nèi)的內(nèi)源性脂肪酸、甘油三脂、脂蛋白、磷脂發(fā)生酯化反應(yīng)而形成的一系列脂肪酸乙酯(圖1)。FAEEs由20多種化合物組成,包括月桂酸乙酯(E12)、肉豆蔻酸乙酯(E14)、棕櫚酸乙酯(E16)、棕櫚油酸乙酯(E16:1)、硬脂酸乙酯(E18)、油酸乙酯(E18:1)、亞油酸乙酯(E18:2)、亞麻酸乙酯(E18:3)、花生四烯酸乙酯(E20:4)、二十二碳六烯酸(E22:6)等等。這些均為親脂性化合物,能夠穿透皮脂腺進(jìn)而分布于全身。
圖1 FAEE的形成及水解過(guò)程
2.2.1 毛發(fā)分析
2001年P(guān)ragst等[74]首次在毛發(fā)中檢出四種FAEE(E14、E16、E18、E18:1),說(shuō)明了 FAEE 在證明酒精攝入方面的檢測(cè)可行性。毛發(fā)中的黑色素呈弱酸性,易與呈堿性的物質(zhì)或陽(yáng)離子結(jié)合,F(xiàn)AEE為中性、弱極性物質(zhì),進(jìn)入毛發(fā)后能夠穩(wěn)定存在,不受發(fā)色影響,因而毛發(fā)中的FAEE定性定量分析結(jié)果較血、尿中FAEE的檢測(cè)更為普遍化。但是,由于個(gè)體在日常生理代謝過(guò)程中會(huì)產(chǎn)生副產(chǎn)物乙醇,因而在嚴(yán)格禁酒的情況下,個(gè)體毛發(fā)中也會(huì)檢出FAEE等假陽(yáng)性情況[75-76]。因此,設(shè)定合理的判斷閾值對(duì)于正確區(qū)分禁酒與飲酒的情況至關(guān)重要。2009年,SoHT將四種 FAEEs(E14、E16、E18、E18:1)的總濃度 CFAEEs 定為區(qū)分不同飲酒情況的標(biāo)準(zhǔn):當(dāng)CFAEEs≥1ng/mg,表明酗酒;CFAEEs≤0.8ng/mg,表明適量飲酒;CFAEEs≤0.4 ng/mg,表明禁酒。 2012年,SoHT發(fā)布了最新的戒酒閾值標(biāo)準(zhǔn),貼根0~3cm頭發(fā)中FAEE>0.2ng/mg或貼根0~6 cm頭發(fā)中FAEE>0.4 ng/mg則表明有酒精復(fù)飲情況。文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道許多學(xué)者對(duì)于毛發(fā)中FAEE的界定標(biāo)準(zhǔn)考慮了毛發(fā)長(zhǎng)度的因素。Elisabetta等[77]、Pragst等[78]均采用了 0.5 ng/mg FAEE(貼根 0~3 cm)作為區(qū)分日常飲酒和酗酒的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),Elisabetta等的分析特異性高達(dá)87%;Süsse等[79]則采用了界定值 1.0 ng/mg FAEE(貼根 3~6 cm)。根據(jù)毛發(fā)的不同長(zhǎng)度,分段設(shè)定檢測(cè)閾值,綜合分析,提供更加全面可靠的酒精濫用信息。
2.2.2 胎糞分析
目前大多數(shù)文獻(xiàn)中,E16、E18:1這兩種物質(zhì)被認(rèn)為是毛發(fā)中FAEEs檢測(cè)的主要目標(biāo)物,能夠較好地認(rèn)定酒精攝入行為[79-80]。在胎糞檢測(cè)中,E18:2的檢測(cè)濃度較高,是孕期酒精暴露的重要標(biāo)志物,而E12、E14由于在非飲酒產(chǎn)婦中檢出比率較大,因此不將其納入檢測(cè)目標(biāo)物之列[81-83]。其他學(xué)者提出E18:2無(wú)法作為FAEEs檢測(cè)的主要目標(biāo)物,如Chan等[84]發(fā)現(xiàn) 80%的胎糞樣品中無(wú)法檢出 E18、E18:1、E18:2;Algar等[85]發(fā)現(xiàn) E18:1、E16 濃度水平較高。 文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道關(guān)于何種FAEE作為胎兒酒精暴露的主要標(biāo)志物不盡相同[86-89],出現(xiàn)差異的原因可能與孕婦飲食習(xí)慣有關(guān)。因此后期有學(xué)者提出,胎糞中FAEEs的 界 定 值 以 七 種 FAEE (E16、E16:1、E18、E18:1、E18:2、E18:3、E20:4) 總 量 為 計(jì) ,Hutson 等[90]設(shè) 定50 ng/g、Chan 等[91]設(shè)定 2 nmol/g(約 600 ng/g)來(lái)區(qū)分孕期酒精暴露與否的情況。其他學(xué)者則根據(jù)具體樣品設(shè)定不同F(xiàn)AEE總量的限定值。Bakdash等[81]以四種 FAEE(E16、 E18、 E18:1、 E18:2)的總量 500 ng/g為攝酒判斷閾值;Moore等[92]采用六種FAEE(E16、E16:1、E18、E18:1、 E18:2、 E20:4)的總量 10,000 ng/g為孕期飲酒的判斷閾值。
FAEE為弱極性的酯類化合物,在堿性條件下易水解而難以穩(wěn)定存在。經(jīng)典的FAEE提取方法主要為L(zhǎng)LE和SPE,常見(jiàn)的提取溶劑為非極性或弱極性溶劑如丙酮、正己烷、二氯甲烷等[92-96],萃取柱主要為 氨 基 柱 、CUNAX 153;HS-SPME[90,97-100]以及MAE[101-103]也是毛發(fā)、胎糞以及表皮組織中FAEE的常見(jiàn)處理方法。FAEEs具有相對(duì)較高的揮發(fā)性,采用HS-SPME提取FAEEs時(shí),為了防止其在高溫下發(fā)生水解,調(diào)節(jié)緩沖溶劑至中性,使FAEE保持分子的穩(wěn)定狀態(tài),同時(shí)加入少量NaCl,通過(guò)鹽化處理促進(jìn)氣化進(jìn)程;另外,毛發(fā)脂質(zhì)層中含有游離的羧酸基團(tuán),調(diào)節(jié)緩沖液至中性有利于羧酸離解,使其呈離子狀態(tài)而不利于氣化。
FAEE適用于GC分析,文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道采用氫火焰離子化檢測(cè)器(FID)具有較高的靈敏性和特異性[104-105]。采用 GC-MS 可提高分析靈敏度[95,97,101,106],Zimmermann等[107]使用GC-MS/MS將毛發(fā)中FAEEs的檢測(cè)限降低至 0.002~0.030 ng/mg,成功應(yīng)用于區(qū)分酗酒、適量飲酒以及非飲酒情況。LC-MS/MS 分析[58,85,94,108]采用正離子電噴霧模式監(jiān)測(cè),提高分析靈敏度的同時(shí),與其他酒精標(biāo)志物EtG、EtS等同時(shí)檢測(cè)能提高鑒別酒精攝入的可靠性。
毛發(fā)檢測(cè)是鑒別酗酒和戒酒的重要手段,其檢測(cè)結(jié)果關(guān)系到認(rèn)定酒精濫用與否,從而影響到離婚訴訟、兒童監(jiān)護(hù)權(quán)等法律問(wèn)題。2009年倫敦法院開(kāi)庭審理了一起離婚案件,當(dāng)事人是一位母親,2008年11月前有長(zhǎng)期酗酒史,而后進(jìn)行戒酒治療。在爭(zhēng)奪兒子撫養(yǎng)權(quán)方面,需要證明成功禁酒至少一年,沒(méi)有復(fù)飲情況[109]。2009年9月收集該當(dāng)事人的貼根頭發(fā)進(jìn)行GC-MS/MS分析,結(jié)果顯示,貼根0~1 cm毛發(fā)中檢出22pg/mgEtG(10 pg/mg為區(qū)分飲酒與禁酒閾值)。該當(dāng)事人否認(rèn)復(fù)飲情況,隨即于2009年10月、2010年2月、5月和7月進(jìn)行后續(xù)分析,結(jié)果顯示在 0~3cm 毛發(fā)中 EtG 含量小于 2.4~3.3 pg/mg。前后不一致的分析報(bào)告顯示毛發(fā)分析結(jié)果應(yīng)經(jīng)反復(fù)確證,并與其他生物檢材或是生物標(biāo)志物聯(lián)合分析、相互印證,同時(shí)尤其要注意受檢者是否曾使用過(guò)含酒精成分的頭發(fā)美容或清洗用品,以排除假陽(yáng)性結(jié)果的產(chǎn)生。案例中當(dāng)事人曾經(jīng)在此戒酒期間服用過(guò)治療哮喘的藥物(Clenil Modulite 100),該藥含有9%乙醇,相當(dāng)于日常攝入36 mg/天的酒精;同時(shí)使用過(guò)含氣泡的洗浴用水,可能含有酒精成分。這類影響因素均未被列入考量范圍。
毛發(fā)分析的溯源性同樣適用于肝臟移植前的戒酒檢測(cè)。原位肝移植的候選人要求在移植手術(shù)前有6個(gè)月的連續(xù)禁酒期,接受肝移植手術(shù)的病人通?;加懈斡不?,因而此類病人在術(shù)前禁止有任何飲酒行為。Sterneck等[110]對(duì)63名患酒精性肝硬化的肝移植病人以及25名非酒精性肝硬化病人進(jìn)行毛發(fā)、尿液和血液分析。分析前,僅有19名病人承認(rèn)在半年內(nèi)喝過(guò)酒,而檢測(cè)結(jié)果表明有39名病人曾有飲酒行為發(fā)生。其中,18名病人的頭發(fā)中檢出EtG(30 pg/mg為區(qū)分飲酒與禁酒閾值);對(duì)于44名先前否認(rèn)飲酒的病人,23名的頭發(fā)、尿液、或血液中至少檢出一項(xiàng)酒精相關(guān)標(biāo)志物;9名先前否認(rèn)飲酒的病人,頭發(fā)中均檢出EtG;25名非酒精性肝硬化病人的頭發(fā)中未檢出EtG;毛發(fā)分析特異性達(dá)98%,陽(yáng)性預(yù)測(cè)率為92%。Sterneck等研究結(jié)果表明毛發(fā)中EtG的分析對(duì)術(shù)前飲酒行為的鑒別具有較高的特異性和可靠性,同時(shí)毛發(fā)的分段分析法可作為認(rèn)定長(zhǎng)期飲酒的一項(xiàng)重要分析手段。
在國(guó)外,酒精濫用的認(rèn)定影響駕駛執(zhí)照的重新授予。比利時(shí)駕駛執(zhí)照重新授予法規(guī)定,駕駛員因酒駕被吊銷駕駛執(zhí)照的,應(yīng)當(dāng)在重新授予前持續(xù)有6個(gè)月的禁酒期。Kummer等[111]分析了50例待重新授予駕照人員的生物樣本,聯(lián)合多樣化的分析手段,分別對(duì)其毛發(fā)中的EtG、尿液中的EtG、EtS、干血點(diǎn)中的PEth進(jìn)行檢測(cè),同時(shí)對(duì)血液中的間接生物學(xué)標(biāo)志物 CDT、γ-GT、ALT/AST、MCV 進(jìn)行檢測(cè)。 根據(jù)不同的檢材特性,尿液分析提供了近期飲酒信息,26例尿樣檢出EtG或EtS,表明受試者在取樣前幾天有攝酒情況。29例干血點(diǎn)樣品檢出PEth16∶0/18:1,表明受試者近一個(gè)月內(nèi)違反了禁酒規(guī)定。24例毛發(fā)樣品中,在貼根0~6 cm段內(nèi)檢出 EtG(>9 pg/mg為復(fù)飲閾值;>38 pg/mg為酗酒閾值),表明受試者在近6個(gè)月內(nèi)有過(guò)復(fù)飲情況;此外毛發(fā)檢測(cè)窗口(6個(gè)月)完整覆蓋法定規(guī)定的禁酒期限,可提供充足的戒酒依從性信息。結(jié)合間接生物學(xué)標(biāo)志物的檢測(cè)結(jié)果,共10名受試者超過(guò)所有檢測(cè)項(xiàng)目的正常值,認(rèn)定其在6個(gè)月內(nèi)有飲酒情況。
許多性侵案件常與醉酒事件有關(guān),酒精與其他安眠類藥物被用作性侵輔助性工具,被害者往往在案發(fā)時(shí)失去思維意識(shí)、沒(méi)有反抗能力,報(bào)案后通常需要鑒定其攝酒或攝藥程度以排除被害者自愿的可能性。在這種特定的情形下,選擇適合的檢材至關(guān)重要。尿液分析的檢測(cè)窗口長(zhǎng)達(dá)幾天時(shí)間,往往尿中檢出EtG、EtS無(wú)法排除案發(fā)前幾天有攝酒的情況。血液分析的檢測(cè)時(shí)限在24 h內(nèi),且血藥濃度能客觀反映個(gè)體飲酒水平,因而血液中檢出EtG、EtS通常能夠認(rèn)定受檢者在24 h內(nèi)有攝酒情況。Hegstad等[71]對(duì)49名自稱遭受酒后性侵的女性進(jìn)行血液分析,血液中的EtG和EtS含量均高于乙醇本身,乙醇無(wú)法檢出時(shí),EtG和EtS能檢出,檢測(cè)時(shí)限大于24 h。乙醇濃度與EtG和EtS的濃度具有相關(guān)性(P<0.001),EtG 和 EtS 的濃度和清除時(shí)間也具有一定的相關(guān)性(P<0.001)。
在尸檢調(diào)查中,死后生物檢材的分析往往涉及檢材腐敗,腐敗產(chǎn)生的干擾物容易導(dǎo)致假陽(yáng)性結(jié)果,如血液腐敗會(huì)產(chǎn)生內(nèi)源性乙醇,對(duì)于死前飲酒的鑒別帶來(lái)一定的干擾。乙醇的直接標(biāo)記物EtG和EtS在人體死亡后,無(wú)法由機(jī)體代謝形成,可以用來(lái)鑒別死前飲酒與否的情況。H?iseth等[112]對(duì)36例懷疑攝酒致死的尸體進(jìn)行血、尿分析,其中19例血、尿樣中的EtG和EtS為陽(yáng)性,16例為陰性。說(shuō)明19名死者生前有飲酒傾向,而另外16名生前的飲酒概率較小。僅有一例的尿樣中檢出EtG和EtS,血樣中只檢出EtS,EtG無(wú)法檢出,其原因可能是個(gè)體死亡后,部分EtG因血液腐敗而降解所致。Vezzoli等[62]分析了63例尸體的靜脈血和玻璃體液,對(duì)其中的EtG進(jìn)行LC-MS/MS分析,并對(duì)乙醇、以及尸體腐敗標(biāo)記物(乙醛、丙醇)進(jìn)行HS-GC分析。結(jié)果表明,17例血樣和玻璃體液中,EtG和EtS均無(wú)檢出,表明死者生前未曾飲酒;19例血樣中檢出乙醇和EtG,濃度范圍分別為 0.05~0.30 g/L 和 0.02~3.27 mg/L;玻璃體液中檢出 EtG,濃度范圍 0.01~2.88 mg/L,乙醛和丙醇均未檢出,表明死者生前有飲酒經(jīng)歷;13例血樣中檢出乙醇,濃度大于0.05 g/L,而血液與玻璃體液中的EtG濃度<0.01 mg/L,其中8例檢材中同時(shí)檢出乙醛及丙醇,表明死者生前飲酒概率較小,體內(nèi)乙醇可能由組織腐敗產(chǎn)生。
在實(shí)際檢測(cè)中時(shí)常會(huì)出現(xiàn)非飲酒性酒精攝入的情況,含酒精的洗手液、漱口水會(huì)導(dǎo)致尿液EtG和EtS假陽(yáng)性[113-114];含酒精的美發(fā)用品(洗發(fā)水、生發(fā)液等)會(huì)造成毛發(fā)EtG和EtS假陽(yáng)性[115],另值得注意的是,燙發(fā)、美發(fā)和頻繁洗頭等美發(fā)過(guò)程則會(huì)造成EtG、EtS的浸出和分解,導(dǎo)致其濃度損耗而出現(xiàn)假陰性結(jié)果[116]。因此,在檢測(cè)值處于閾值附近時(shí),應(yīng)當(dāng)充分考慮非飲酒性酒精攝入的干擾因素,尤其當(dāng)受試者否認(rèn)飲酒時(shí),需結(jié)合病史,進(jìn)行多標(biāo)志物聯(lián)合分析,防止產(chǎn)生假陽(yáng)性情況。
生物檢材中EtG、EtS和FAEEs可作為人體攝入乙醇的直接生物標(biāo)志物,其分析手段不斷完善,檢測(cè)靈敏度和特異性較高,能夠鑒別少量飲酒情況。毛發(fā)分析在區(qū)分飲酒與禁酒、酗酒與日常飲酒以及鑒別戒酒后復(fù)飲等方面發(fā)揮了重要的界定作用;尿液及血液分析在近期飲酒行為認(rèn)定方面能提供充足證據(jù);其他非傳統(tǒng)生物檢材在鑒別特殊飲酒情況如死前飲酒、孕期飲酒等方面具有無(wú)可替代的證據(jù)作用。EtG、EtS和FAEEs的分析與檢測(cè)已廣泛應(yīng)用于職業(yè)衛(wèi)生、法醫(yī)鑒定、考證測(cè)試、臨床監(jiān)測(cè)、戒癮治療等領(lǐng)域。隨著酒精濫用的危害不斷提升,酗酒認(rèn)定具有重要的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義,也對(duì)酒精濫用的分析提出更大的挑戰(zhàn)。在實(shí)際應(yīng)用過(guò)程中應(yīng)當(dāng)結(jié)合具體案情界定閾值;必要時(shí)聯(lián)合多種乙醇生物標(biāo)志物(如直接標(biāo)志物與間接標(biāo)志物 γ-GT、CDT、MCV、ALT、AST等)以及病史進(jìn)行多角度分析,同時(shí)應(yīng)注意排除非飲酒性酒精攝入的干擾因素(如含酒精的美發(fā)產(chǎn)品、衛(wèi)生用品等),為酗酒行為認(rèn)定和涉酒案(事)件的處置提供更加科學(xué)、可靠、有效的證據(jù)信息。
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Review on the Analysis and Application of Alcohol Biomarkers
FENG Xue-yi1,2,SHEN Min1
(1.Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine,Shanghai Forensic Platform,Academy of Forensic Science,Shanghai 200063,China;2.Institute of Criminal Science and Technology,Jing'an Branch of Shanghai Public Security Bureau,Shanghai 200070,China)
Alcohol abuse,a public health problem of great importance,is the third leading cause of death and disability in the word according to the World Health Organization.Determination and evaluation of ethanol in vivo has been the main task of forensic toxicological analysis in the cases of traffic accident,alcohol or drug abuse,occupational health and poison intoxication.The biomarkers of ethanol present more advantages over ethanol itself in terms of sensitivity,specificity,detection window,identification ability and application areas.This review summarized the analytical procedures and applications of direct alcohol biomarkers of ethyl glucuronide,ethyl sulfate and fatty acid ethyl esters,in an attempt to promote the progress of forensic toxicological analysis and provide lawsuit and social identification activity with more scientific,reliable and efficient information.
alcohol biomarker;alcohol abuse;ethyl glucuronide;ethyl sulfate;fatty acid ethyl esters
DF795.4
A
10.3969/j.issn.1671-2072.2017.06.007
1671-2072-(2017)06-0036-14
2017-05-17
國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金(81772022);上海市科技攻關(guān)項(xiàng)目(15DZ1207500);上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室資助項(xiàng)目(17DZ2273200);上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái)資助項(xiàng)目(16DZ2290900)
馮雪伊(1991—),女,碩士研究生,主要從事分析化學(xué)研究。 E-mail:milk_juice@sina.com。
沈敏(1955—),女,研究員,博士研究生導(dǎo)師,主要從事法醫(yī)毒物鑒定研究和司法鑒定管理工作。E-mail:shenm@ssfjd.cn。
(本文編輯:嚴(yán) 慧)