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孤獨(dú)是一種健康流行病嗎?

2018-06-12 17:06:38ByEricKlinenberg
英語學(xué)習(xí) 2018年6期
關(guān)鍵詞:流行病

By Eric Klinenberg

Earlier this year, Britain appointed its first“minister for loneliness,” who is charged with tackling what Prime Minister Theresa May called the “sad reality of modern life.”

Public-health leaders immediately praised the idea—and for good reason. In recent decades, researchers have discovered that loneliness left untreated is not just psychically painful; it also can have serious medical consequences. Rigorous epidemiological1 studies have linked loneliness and social isolation to heart disease, cancer, depression, diabetes and suicide. Vivek Murthy, the former United States surgeon general, has written that loneliness and social isolation are “associated with a reduction in life span similar to that caused by smoking 15 cigarettes a day and even greater than that associated with obesity.”

But is loneliness, as many political officials and pundits2 are warning, a growing “health epidemic”? I dont believe so, nor do I believe it helps anyone to describe it that way. Social disconnection is a serious matter, yet if we whip up3 a panic over its prevalence and impact, were less likely to deal with it properly.

Anxiety about loneliness is a common feature of modern societies. Today, two major causes of loneliness seem possible. One is that societies throughout the world have embraced a culture of individualism. More people are living alone, and aging alone, than ever. Neoliberal social policies have turned workers into precarious free agents,4 and when jobs disappear, things fall apart fast. Labor unions, civic associations, neighborhood organizations, religious groups and other traditional sources of social solidarity are in steady decline. Increasingly, we all feel that were on our own.

The other possible cause is the rise of communications technology, including smartphones, social media and the internet. A decade ago, companies like Facebook, Apple and Google pledged that their products would help create meaningful relationships and communities. Instead, weve used the media system to deepen existing divisions, at both the individual and group levels. We may have thousands of“friends” and “followers” on Facebook and Instagram, but when it comes to human relationships, it turns out theres no substitute for building them the old-fashioned way, in person.

In light of these two trends, its easy to believe were experiencing an “epidemic” of loneliness and isolation. Surprisingly, though, the best data do not actually show drastic spikes5 in either loneliness or social isolation.

The main evidence for rising isolation comes from a widely reported sociology journal article claiming that in 2004, one in four Americans had no one in their life they felt they could confide in6, compared with one in 10 during the 1980s. But that study turned out to be based on faulty data, and other research shows that the portion of Americans without a confidant7 is about the same as it has long been. Although one of the authors has distanced himself from the paper (saying, “I no longer think its reliable”), scholars, journalists and policymakers continue to cite it.

The other data on loneliness are complicated and often contradictory, in part because there are so many different ways of measuring the phenomenon. But its clear that the loneliness statistics cited by those who say we have an epidemic are outliers. For example, one set of statistics comes from a study that counted as lonely people who said they felt “l(fā)eft out” or “isolated,” or “l(fā)acked companionship”—even just “some of the time.”Thats an exceedingly low bar, and surely not one wed want doctors or policymakers to use in their work.

One reason we need to be careful about how we measure and respond to loneliness is that, as the University of Chicago psychologist John Cacioppo argues, an occasional and transitory feeling of loneliness can be healthy and productive. Its a biological signal to ourselves that we need to build stronger social bonds.

Professor Cacioppo has spent much of his career documenting the dangers of loneliness. But its notable that he relies on more measured statistics in his own scientific papers than the statistics described above. One of his articles reports that around 19 percent of older Americans said they had felt lonely for much of the week before they were surveyed, and that in Britain about six percent of adults said they felt lonely all or most of the time. Those are worrisome numbers, but they are quite similar to the numbers reported in Britain in 1948, when about eight percent of older adults said they often or always felt lonely, and to those in previous American studies as well.

Professor Cacioppo is one of the leading voices advocating for better treatment of loneliness. But, as he has written, “to call it an epidemic of loneliness risks having it relegated8 to the advice columns.”

In particular, overstating the problem can make it harder to make sure we are focusing on the people who need help the most. When Britain announced its new ministry, officials insisted that everyone, young or old, was at risk of loneliness. Yet the research tells us something more specific. In places like the United States and Britain, its the poor, unemployed, displaced9 and migrant populations that stand to suffer most from loneliness and isolation. Their lives are unstable, and so are their relationships. When they get lonely, they are the least able to get adequate social or medical support.

I dont believe we have a loneliness epidemic. But millions of people are suffering from social disconnection. Whether or not they have a minister for loneliness, they deserve more attention and help than were offering today.

今年早些時(shí)候,英國政府任命了有史以來第一位“孤獨(dú)大臣”,負(fù)責(zé)處理首相特蕾莎·梅所言的“現(xiàn)代生活中的可悲現(xiàn)實(shí)”問題。

隨即,公共衛(wèi)生領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人贊揚(yáng)了這一提議——其贊揚(yáng)是有理由的。近幾十年來,研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn),如果對(duì)孤獨(dú)癥狀不加以治療,不僅會(huì)造成精神上的痛苦,也會(huì)引發(fā)嚴(yán)重的疾病。嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)牧餍胁W(xué)研究表明,孤獨(dú)以及人際隔離與心臟病、癌癥、抑郁癥、糖尿病和自殺等問題相關(guān)。前美國衛(wèi)生局局長維韋克·墨菲寫道,孤獨(dú)以及人際隔離“會(huì)導(dǎo)致人壽命縮短,其危害程度相當(dāng)于每天吸15支香煙,甚于肥胖癥所帶來的危害?!?/p>

但是,孤獨(dú)真的如許多政治官員和權(quán)威人士所警告的那樣,逐漸成為“健康流行病”了嗎?我不這么認(rèn)為,我也不相信這樣描述孤獨(dú)有助于任何人。缺乏社會(huì)交往是一個(gè)嚴(yán)重的問題,但如果我們對(duì)其流行和影響感到恐慌,我們就不太可能正確處理它。

對(duì)孤獨(dú)感到焦慮已經(jīng)成為現(xiàn)代社會(huì)的普遍特征。如今,孤獨(dú)的產(chǎn)生可能有兩個(gè)主要原因。一是由于全世界都普遍接受了個(gè)人主義文化。與以往任何時(shí)候相比,現(xiàn)在越來越多的人開始獨(dú)居并獨(dú)自老去。新自由主義的社會(huì)政策已經(jīng)將工人變成了不穩(wěn)定的自由職業(yè)者,一旦失去工作,事情就會(huì)馬上分崩離析。工會(huì)、民間團(tuán)體、社區(qū)組織、宗教團(tuán)體以及其他能夠提供社會(huì)凝聚力的傳統(tǒng)來源目前也正在減少。日復(fù)一日,我們愈加感受到自己變得孑然一身。

另一個(gè)可能的原因是由于智能手機(jī)、社交媒體以及互聯(lián)網(wǎng)等通信技術(shù)的崛起。十年前,臉書、蘋果和谷歌等公司承諾,他們的產(chǎn)品將有助于建立有意義的人際關(guān)系和社會(huì)團(tuán)體。而事實(shí)卻與之相反,我們所使用的這些媒體反而加深了個(gè)人與團(tuán)體層面已有的隔閡。我們可能在臉書和Instagram等社交媒體上有成千上萬個(gè)“朋友”和“粉絲”,但當(dāng)論及人際關(guān)系時(shí),我們?nèi)孕枰戏椒?,即面?duì)面的交流。

鑒于這兩種趨勢(shì),我們很容易就會(huì)相信自己正在經(jīng)歷一場以孤獨(dú)和孤立為特征的“流行病”。但令人驚訝的是,有精確的數(shù)據(jù)顯示,人們的孤獨(dú)和孤立感并沒有呈現(xiàn)出急劇的增加。

一篇廣為報(bào)道的社會(huì)學(xué)期刊文章稱,在2004年,有四分之一的美國人認(rèn)為自己沒有可以信賴的人,而在20世紀(jì)80年代,只有十分之一的美國人認(rèn)為自己沒有可以信賴的人。這成為人們孤立感上升的主要證據(jù)。但結(jié)果表明,這項(xiàng)研究是基于錯(cuò)誤的數(shù)據(jù)。而其他研究顯示,目前無密友的美國人比例與長期以來的狀況基本持平。盡管其中一位作者已與該論文劃清界限(他表示,“我已不再認(rèn)為它是可靠的”),但是學(xué)者、記者以及政策制定者仍繼續(xù)對(duì)其進(jìn)行引用。

其他關(guān)于孤獨(dú)的數(shù)據(jù)則既復(fù)雜又常常自相矛盾,部分原因是由于衡量這一現(xiàn)象的方法多種多樣。但很明顯的一點(diǎn)是,堅(jiān)持孤獨(dú)病蔓延說法的人所引用的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)都是異常值。例如,有一組統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)來源于其中一項(xiàng)研究,該研究認(rèn)為,感到“被忽略”或“被孤立”,或者“缺乏陪伴”的就算作孤獨(dú)的人——即使只是“偶爾”感到也是如此。這是一個(gè)非常低的門檻,而且我們肯定不希望醫(yī)生或政策制定者將此標(biāo)準(zhǔn)應(yīng)用于他們的工作之中。

我們需要審慎考慮如何衡量和回應(yīng)孤獨(dú)感的一個(gè)原因是,正如芝加哥大學(xué)心理學(xué)家約翰·卡西奧普所認(rèn)為的那樣,偶爾且短暫的孤獨(dú)感可能有益于身心并且能提高效率。對(duì)于我們自身來說,這也是一個(gè)生物信號(hào),提醒我們需要建立更緊密的社會(huì)關(guān)系。

卡西奧普教授在他的職業(yè)生涯中花費(fèi)了大量時(shí)間來論證孤獨(dú)所帶來的危害。但值得注意的是,他自己的科學(xué)論文是基于更加精確的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù),而不是上述提到的數(shù)據(jù)。他在一篇文章中指出,約有19%的美國老年人說他們?cè)诮邮苷{(diào)查前一周的大部分時(shí)間里都感覺到孤獨(dú),而在英國,約有6%的成年人說他們總是或大部分時(shí)間都感到孤獨(dú)。雖然這些數(shù)字令人擔(dān)憂,但這與1948年英國公布的數(shù)據(jù)非常相似,當(dāng)時(shí)約有8%的老年人說他們經(jīng)?;蚩偸歉械焦陋?dú)。無獨(dú)有偶,美國之前公布的研究數(shù)據(jù)也是如此。

卡西奧普教授是倡導(dǎo)對(duì)孤獨(dú)癥狀進(jìn)行更好治療的領(lǐng)軍人物之一。但是,正如他寫道,“把孤獨(dú)稱作孤獨(dú)流行病,冒有把其歸入讀者問答專欄的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。”

特別是,夸大這一問題會(huì)使我們更難以確保去關(guān)注到那些最需要幫助的人。當(dāng)英國宣布其新部成立時(shí),官員們堅(jiān)稱,無論年輕人還是老年人,都面臨著孤獨(dú)的危險(xiǎn)。然而,這項(xiàng)研究為我們提供了一些更為確切的東西。在美國和英國這樣的地方,最容易受到孤獨(dú)和孤立折磨的是那些貧窮、失業(yè)、流離失所以及移民的人群。他們的生活缺乏穩(wěn)定性,人際關(guān)系也是如此。當(dāng)他們感到孤獨(dú)的時(shí)候,得到足夠的社會(huì)或醫(yī)療支持的可能性也最小。

我認(rèn)為,我們并沒有患孤獨(dú)流行病,但確實(shí)數(shù)百萬人正在忍受與社會(huì)脫節(jié)之苦。無論是否設(shè)置孤獨(dú)大臣,他們都需要我們給予更多的關(guān)心和幫助。

1. epidemiological: 流行病學(xué)的。

2. pundit:(經(jīng)常接受咨詢的)權(quán)威,專家。

3. whip up: 挑起,激起……的強(qiáng)烈感情(或熱情)。

4. neoliberal: 新自由主義的(反對(duì)國家過多干預(yù)經(jīng)濟(jì),強(qiáng)調(diào)自由市場的重要性);precarious: // 危險(xiǎn)的,不確定的。

5. spike: (數(shù)量或比率的)激增。

6. confide in: 信賴,向……吐露秘密。

7. confidant: 知己,密友。

8. relegate: 把……歸類。

9. displaced: 無家可歸的。

閱讀感評(píng)

∷秋葉 評(píng)

現(xiàn)代病的重要癥狀是人的異化、焦慮與孤獨(dú),而后現(xiàn)代病的癥狀之一正是人們對(duì)于孤獨(dú)的焦慮。人們對(duì)于獨(dú)處可能引發(fā)的負(fù)面后果一直有種擔(dān)憂,但從來沒有像今天這樣惴惴不安。當(dāng)然,這些焦慮與不安并非空穴來風(fēng),它們大致上是基于西方社會(huì)學(xué)、心理學(xué)甚至醫(yī)學(xué)的所謂“最新研究成果”。諸如:個(gè)人主義價(jià)值觀的普世化,造成了越來越多的人獨(dú)居生活與獨(dú)居養(yǎng)老,而社會(huì)上傳統(tǒng)的聯(lián)系與幫扶組織也日漸式微。另外,現(xiàn)代人對(duì)于高科技社交媒體等工具的執(zhí)著加劇了人際的疏離感。社會(huì)學(xué)家手握各種調(diào)查數(shù)據(jù),似乎足以證明上述問題存在的嚴(yán)重性,雖然他們對(duì)于數(shù)據(jù)采集的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及其可靠性并未受到普遍認(rèn)同。有了社會(huì)學(xué)上的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)和心理學(xué)上有關(guān)精神問題的精細(xì)分析,再加以病理學(xué)上的給健康帶來的嚴(yán)重后果來敲響警鐘:孤獨(dú)會(huì)引發(fā)心臟病、糖尿病、癌癥、抑郁癥乃至自殺行為!難怪,當(dāng)今“孤獨(dú)”被冠以“健康流行病”(health epidemic),不禁讓人們聯(lián)想起中世紀(jì)時(shí)期流行于歐洲、消滅了3/4人口的黑死病,以及十多年前曾肆虐中華大地迄今尚讓人心有余悸的“非典型肺炎”(SARS)。

筆者不否認(rèn)極端的孤獨(dú)狀態(tài)及其心理影響會(huì)導(dǎo)致人的身心問題,但我們這個(gè)時(shí)代也常見這樣一種現(xiàn)象:為了引發(fā)社會(huì)對(duì)其觀點(diǎn)的關(guān)注,就無限放大問題的嚴(yán)重性,夸大其辭,嘩眾取寵。先不必說孤獨(dú)感與獨(dú)居獨(dú)處狀態(tài)之間有什么必然的聯(lián)系,其實(shí)獨(dú)處狀態(tài),甚至一定程度上的孤獨(dú)感,有時(shí)會(huì)產(chǎn)生積極的意義。

德國哲學(xué)家尼采稱盧梭、達(dá)爾文、易卜生、托爾斯泰等偉大的思想家、科學(xué)家、作家為“孤獨(dú)者”(die Einzelnen)。這些“孤獨(dú)者”遠(yuǎn)離塵囂,不與蠅營狗茍之輩為伍。人世間的蠅營狗茍之輩總是拉幫結(jié)派、黨同伐異,是孤獨(dú)的敵人,而那些偉大的創(chuàng)造者或者說“偶像破壞者”,作為他們的對(duì)立面,往往執(zhí)著于自己認(rèn)定的目標(biāo),特立獨(dú)行。其中盧梭就著有《一個(gè)孤獨(dú)漫步者的遐想》(1776—1778),冥想過去美好的歲月,追憶寂靜無嘩、令人神往的鄉(xiāng)村,而最終成就了一部思想杰作。達(dá)爾文為了從事科學(xué)研究,多次環(huán)球航行,并在一些大洋孤島上采集動(dòng)植物標(biāo)本和化石。他矢志不渝,孤身研究,終于成就了進(jìn)化論奠基者的崇高地位。

即便是普通人,獨(dú)居獨(dú)處也未必意味著生活的缺憾,其實(shí)重要的并非社會(huì)交往的數(shù)量而是質(zhì)量!稍有生活經(jīng)驗(yàn)的人都知道,孤獨(dú)感并非完全由外在的環(huán)境引發(fā),而往往是一種更深層次的精神、心理狀態(tài)。在城市里,我雖每天見不少人,和朋友握手寒暄,但精神上并無溝通。我會(huì)覺得我們之間有一塊長長的荒地把彼此隔離。但有時(shí),收到一句遠(yuǎn)方的問候,偶然想起一個(gè)人,卻倍感溫馨。有時(shí)我們甚至?xí)X得獨(dú)處很愜意,而各種人聲鼎沸的聚會(huì)反而讓人心煩。常聽人說,“態(tài)度決定一切”,這有一定道理。如果獨(dú)居獨(dú)處是一種主動(dòng)的選擇,是一個(gè)人的性格所在,一種價(jià)值觀的行為表現(xiàn),那么就不太容易導(dǎo)致孤獨(dú)等消極負(fù)面的精神狀態(tài),因?yàn)槠渥非笤诤艽蟪潭壬弦褳榭赡艿臓奚龊昧诵睦頊?zhǔn)備。英國詩人鄧約翰(John Donne, 1572—1631)曾在一篇講道文中說:“No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main. ... any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind. And therefore, never send to know for whom the bell tolls, it tolls for thee.”表達(dá)的是人人禍福相關(guān),沒有人可以孤立的觀點(diǎn)。人人都是人類的一員。喪鐘為誰而響?為你而響——?jiǎng)e人喪生,你也受到影響。然而,美國20世紀(jì)散文家安·林德伯格(Ann Lindbergh)在其散文集《海的禮物》(Gift from the Sea)中卻獨(dú)辟蹊徑:“How wonderful are islands!... People, too, become like islands in such an atmosphere, self-contained, whole and serene; respecting other peoples solitude, not intruding on their shores, standing back in reverence before the miracle of another individual. … I feel we are all islands—in a common sea.”島的特性是隔絕——時(shí)間與空間上的隔絕。在此環(huán)境中,一個(gè)人心無掛礙,無思無慮,并尊重他人的孤獨(dú),不闖入他人的海岸。我觀他人,虔誠敬畏,駐步不敢前。

安·林德伯格以為,人人都是孤島,人從本質(zhì)上是寂寞的,溝通是困難的,所以一個(gè)人即為一座島,這和鄧約翰人人禍福相關(guān)的看法不同,體現(xiàn)的可能是美國“個(gè)人主義”(individualism)與“自主自為”(self-reliance)的民族性格以及作者個(gè)人的精神特性。于是,安·林德伯格進(jìn)而提出今人必須重新學(xué)習(xí)如何在寂寞之中充實(shí)內(nèi)心生活,而非因畏懼寂寞而用各種消遣方法來填補(bǔ)空虛。她發(fā)現(xiàn),在寂寞里有一種性質(zhì)—— 一種不可思議的寶貴性質(zhì),即它能讓我們思想,同時(shí),因離開人群,與同類隔絕,便與別的種類及大自然更為接近,畢竟“眾生皆我類也”!顯然,她重視精神的溝通,靈魂的聯(lián)系以及由此流淌而出的內(nèi)心的甘泉,而在她看來,這些美好的東西只有在寂寞之中才最容易被我們重新發(fā)現(xiàn)?!墩撜Z》中提出“吾日三省吾身”,恐怕也只有在夜深人靜、孤獨(dú)寂寞時(shí)才能踐行,很難想象在不斷的音樂、不斷的聊天、不斷的有人做伴的環(huán)境中人們能有心為之。因此,孤獨(dú)寂寞不足懼,只要我們做好正確的應(yīng)對(duì),“塞翁失馬,焉知非?!保?/p>

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