索 濤 楊 雁 范 增 王夢夢 趙國祥
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賭博游戲中的near-miss效應(yīng)*
索 濤1楊 雁2范 增1王夢夢1趙國祥1
(1河南大學(xué)教育科學(xué)學(xué)院, 心理與行為研究所, 認(rèn)知、腦與健康研究所;2河南大學(xué)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)院, 開封 475004)
near-miss效應(yīng)是指在賭博中, 與一般的輸錢和贏錢相比, “幾乎贏(near-miss)”的輸錢會誘發(fā)個體更高的生理喚醒和更強(qiáng)的賭博動機(jī), 從而導(dǎo)致個體持續(xù)賭博的一種現(xiàn)象, 是導(dǎo)致賭博成癮的主要誘因之一。針對這種現(xiàn)象的研究范式大致有三種:老虎機(jī)/類老虎機(jī)任務(wù)、輪盤任務(wù)和刮刮樂彩票任務(wù)。這種現(xiàn)象的理論解釋目前主要有認(rèn)知曲解假說、控制幻覺理論和受挫假說。near-miss效應(yīng)的腦機(jī)制和病理研究才剛剛起步, 所涉及到的腦功能區(qū)域主要包括腦島、腹側(cè)紋狀體等。未來的研究應(yīng)在near-miss效應(yīng)發(fā)生機(jī)制的理論模型建構(gòu)、研究范式多樣化、研究技術(shù)多模態(tài)化、病理機(jī)制和臨床干預(yù)等方面進(jìn)一步展開。
near-miss效應(yīng); 認(rèn)知曲解假說; 控制幻覺理論; 受挫假說; 腦島; 腹側(cè)紋狀體
賭博游戲是人們?nèi)粘I钪衅毡榱餍械囊活悐蕵沸燥L(fēng)險決策活動, 但部分個體過度沉溺于這類風(fēng)險游戲, 導(dǎo)致消極的病態(tài)賭博行為, 對個人、家庭甚至社會產(chǎn)生極其負(fù)面的影響, 比如, 個體身心紊亂, 生活質(zhì)量低下; 家庭支離破碎, 債臺高筑; 社會風(fēng)氣敗壞, 違法犯罪率劇增(Goudriaan, Oosterlaan, de Beurs, & Van den Brink et al., 2004; Hodgins, Stea, & Grant, 2011; van Holst, van den Brink, Veltman, & Goudriaan., 2010)。許多不同類型的賭博研究一致發(fā)現(xiàn)一種能誘發(fā)賭徒長時持續(xù)下賭注進(jìn)而導(dǎo)致成癮的現(xiàn)象:near-miss效應(yīng)(Reid, 1986; Barton et al., 2017; C?té, Caron, Aubert, Desrochers, & Ladouceur, 2003)。near-miss效應(yīng)是指在賭博過程中, 與一般的輸錢和贏錢相比, “差點贏(near-miss)”的輸錢結(jié)果會誘發(fā)個體更高的生理喚醒和更強(qiáng)行為動機(jī), 從而導(dǎo)致個體持續(xù)賭博游戲行為的一種現(xiàn)象(Barton et al., 2017; Billieux, Van der Linden, Khazaal, Zullino, & Clark, 2012; Chase & Clark 2010; Clark, Crooks, Clarke, Aitken, & Dunn, 2012; Clark, Lawrence, Astley-Jones, & Gray, 2009; Griffiths,1991; Larche, Musielak, & Dixon, 2017; Reid, 1986)。這種動機(jī)效應(yīng)在反饋結(jié)果評價時誘發(fā)個體產(chǎn)生持久賭博動機(jī)和行為中發(fā)揮著重要的作用, 是病態(tài)賭博和游戲成癮的主要誘因之一(Barton et al., 2017)。最近幾年, 這種效應(yīng)已成為國外賭博研究領(lǐng)域關(guān)注的一個熱點, 但國內(nèi)關(guān)于這方面的研究寥寥無幾。研究這種現(xiàn)象對于進(jìn)一步探討動態(tài)結(jié)果評價的認(rèn)知過程和神經(jīng)機(jī)制具有重要的理論價值, 對于理清病理性賭博成癮的發(fā)生機(jī)制和探討賭博成癮的診療途徑具有一定的實踐意義。本文首先闡述了near-miss效應(yīng)研究的常見范式, 接著簡述了研究者們對這一現(xiàn)象的不同理論解釋, 然后概述了關(guān)于這種現(xiàn)象的腦功能成像和腦電研究, 最后基于這幾個方面, 針對當(dāng)前研究存在的不足和問題, 對未來的研究方向進(jìn)行了展望。
研究賭博中near-miss效應(yīng)最常用的實驗范式主要有三種:老虎機(jī)/類老虎機(jī)任務(wù)、輪盤任務(wù)和刮刮樂彩票任務(wù)。
老虎機(jī)任務(wù)(the slot machine task, SMT)/類老虎機(jī)任務(wù)(the liking-SMT)。老虎機(jī)也叫吃角子機(jī)或單臂強(qiáng)盜(one-arm bandit), 是一種在賭場和娛樂場所最常見的賭博機(jī)器, 因最早籌碼上有老虎圖案而得名。最早的商業(yè)老虎機(jī)由美國的查理·費(fèi)(Charlie Fey)于1895年發(fā)明, 由內(nèi)部的三個轉(zhuǎn)軸(里面有不同的圖案)、一個投幣槽和外部控制機(jī)器轉(zhuǎn)動的手柄組成。老虎機(jī)的基本玩法是把硬幣或代幣投入投幣槽后拉動手柄或啟動旋轉(zhuǎn)按鈕, 轉(zhuǎn)軸轉(zhuǎn)動, 每個轉(zhuǎn)軸里的圖案開始隨機(jī)變化, 當(dāng)機(jī)器停止轉(zhuǎn)動時如果機(jī)器界面出現(xiàn)特定的圖標(biāo)組合(比如三個轉(zhuǎn)軸在賠付線上圖標(biāo)相同)就會贏錢, 否則輸?shù)糍€注, 由于操作簡便且能以小博大, 很快風(fēng)靡全球, 成為許多酒吧、賭場、游戲廳, 甚至零售店的娛樂賭具。
早期賭博研究采用的研究任務(wù)大多是讓被試在真實的老虎機(jī)上進(jìn)行賭博, 然后考察被試對不同反饋結(jié)果的行為反應(yīng)和生理反應(yīng)(Dixon & Schreiber, 2004; Reid, 1986; Harrigan, 2009)。但由于真實老虎機(jī)任務(wù)存在諸多不可控因素, 且研究數(shù)據(jù)記錄不便, 因此隨后大多數(shù)研究采用了電腦可視化的三轉(zhuǎn)軸老虎機(jī)任務(wù)(Belisle & Dixon 2016; Dymond et al., 2014; Habib, & Dixon, 2010; MacLin, Dixon, Daugherty, & Small, 2007; Sharman, Aitken, & Clark, 2015; Shao, Read, Behrens, & Rogers, 2013; Worhunsky, Malison, Rogers, & Potenza, 2014)。在這個任務(wù)中, 當(dāng)三個轉(zhuǎn)軸停止轉(zhuǎn)動時, 在前兩個轉(zhuǎn)軸中停在賠付線(pay-line)上的圖符一樣, 而在第三個轉(zhuǎn)軸中這個圖符剛剛停在緊挨著賠付線上方或下方時(見圖1A)就是near-miss結(jié)果。后來一些研究(Clark et al., 2009; Alicart, Cucurell, Masherrero, & Marcopallarés, 2015; Sescousse et al., 2016)把老虎機(jī)任務(wù)進(jìn)一步簡化為雙轉(zhuǎn)軸模式(兩個轉(zhuǎn)軸和一個賠付線), 首先由參與者在左轉(zhuǎn)軸的眾多圖符中選中一個停在賠付線上, 然后按按鈕后右轉(zhuǎn)軸快速轉(zhuǎn)動一段時間后隨機(jī)停下, 當(dāng)右轉(zhuǎn)軸中停在賠付線上的圖符與左轉(zhuǎn)軸中選中的圖符相同時參與者贏錢, 反之輸錢。當(dāng)右轉(zhuǎn)軸停下時緊挨賠付線上一個或下一個圖符與左轉(zhuǎn)軸選中的圖符相同時的輸錢就是near-miss結(jié)果(見圖1B)。
輪盤任務(wù)。輪盤(Rapid Roulette)也是賭場常見的一種賭具。輪盤由轉(zhuǎn)輪和賭注圖案兩部分組成, 式樣有兩種:一種只有一個賭注圖案, 輪盤設(shè)于一端; 另一種是轉(zhuǎn)輪在中間和兩邊各設(shè)一圖案。莊家宣布開賭后, 參與者開始下賭注, 下注的位置由自己選擇。轉(zhuǎn)輪向逆時針方向轉(zhuǎn)動, 然后莊家把一個小球放在微凸的輪盤面上以順時針方向旋動, 在這個過程中, 參與者可不斷下注, 待小球轉(zhuǎn)速下降, 落入輪盤上任何兩個金屬間隔之間, 每個間隔上面標(biāo)注的顏色數(shù)字就是賭徒贏錢的號碼。早期的賭博研究都是采用這種真實的賭博輪盤任務(wù)。為了更方便操控自變量和克服研究中額外變量的干擾, 后來的輪盤賭博研究(Jessup, & O'Doherty, 2011; Ulrich, & Hewig, 2014; Wu et al., 2017)大多都采用了簡化版的幸運(yùn)輪任務(wù)(wheel- of-fortune task) (見圖1C), 整個輪盤僅有一個分成不同區(qū)域的輪盤面和一個指針組成。簡化的幸運(yùn)輪盤任務(wù)有兩種類型:一種是先固定指針在任意位置, 然后讓輪盤快速轉(zhuǎn)起來一段時間, 當(dāng)輪盤停下來時, 指針指向的數(shù)字號碼就是參與者輸贏錢的數(shù)量; 另一種是輪盤固定不動, 讓指針快速轉(zhuǎn)動一段時間, 然后指針慢慢停下來, 指針指向的數(shù)字號碼就是參與者輸贏錢的數(shù)量。在這個任務(wù)中, near-miss結(jié)果則是指那些指針指向十分接近贏錢(尤其是大贏)的位置但沒有贏錢時的結(jié)果。
圖1 常見的研究near-miss效應(yīng)的實驗任務(wù)(A圖源于Dixon et al., 2011; B圖源于Clark et al., 2009; C圖源于Wu, van Dijk, Li, Aitken, & Clark, 2017; D圖源于Stange, Graydon, & Dixon, 2016)
刮刮樂彩票任務(wù)。還有一部分博彩研究(Griffiths, 1995; Lole, Gonsalvez, Barry, & De Blasio, 2013; Stange, Graydon, & Dixon, 2016, 2017; Stange, Grau, Osazuwa, Graydon, & Dixon, 2017)采用了模擬刮刮樂彩票(Scratch card games)的任務(wù)(見圖1D), 每次向參與者呈現(xiàn)若干個(一般3~7個)并排的隱藏符號(比如, 動物圖形、水果圖形、字母等), 參與者先選擇不同的賭注, 然后依次呈現(xiàn)或同時呈現(xiàn)這些符號, 當(dāng)所有符號都相同時能贏最多的錢就是full-win結(jié)果; 當(dāng)只有一個符號和其余符號不同時, 只能贏很少部分錢或未贏錢或輸錢的結(jié)果就是near-miss結(jié)果; 當(dāng)兩個以上符號和其余符號不同時未能贏錢就是full-loss結(jié)果。
近30年來的研究發(fā)現(xiàn), near-miss效應(yīng)是病態(tài)賭博產(chǎn)生的主要誘因之一。但關(guān)于這種效應(yīng)的發(fā)生機(jī)制, 也即near-miss結(jié)果如何導(dǎo)致個體產(chǎn)生更強(qiáng)的持續(xù)賭博動機(jī), 研究者提出了不同的理論解釋。
Griffiths (1991)認(rèn)為, near-miss結(jié)果更加接近于能贏錢的結(jié)果, 使個體增強(qiáng)贏錢預(yù)期, 進(jìn)一步提高個體的喚醒水平, 導(dǎo)致認(rèn)知曲解(cognitive misrepresentation), 使得個體誤以為這種輸錢結(jié)果更接近于贏錢而不是輸錢, 時間久之, 這種表面類似贏錢的結(jié)果會強(qiáng)化個體進(jìn)一步誤以為他們不是經(jīng)常輸錢而是經(jīng)常幾乎要贏錢。Dixon和Schreiber (2004)的一項研究中讓被試評定near-miss結(jié)果更類似贏錢還是輸錢, 結(jié)果表明near-miss更類似于贏錢(也見Habib, & Dixon 2010)。同時, 一些動物研究也一致發(fā)現(xiàn), 同能產(chǎn)生獎賞的結(jié)果一樣, near-miss結(jié)果也能增強(qiáng)老鼠的獎賞預(yù)期, 增強(qiáng)老鼠持續(xù)賭博的動機(jī)。Peters, Hunt和Harper (2010)為老鼠設(shè)計了一個與老虎機(jī)類似的程序, 只要老鼠使轉(zhuǎn)輪上的圖標(biāo)匹配就能得到食物獎賞, 他們發(fā)現(xiàn)老鼠也會把near-miss結(jié)果當(dāng)作一種食物獎賞的強(qiáng)化物。他們認(rèn)為, 老鼠能把類老虎機(jī)上意味著贏得食物獎賞的符號與食物相聯(lián)系而成為獲取食物的條件強(qiáng)化物, 同樣near-miss結(jié)果由于與能獲取食物的結(jié)果在視覺上具有相似性, 因此導(dǎo)致老鼠也把near-miss結(jié)果作為食物獲取的條件強(qiáng)化物。這也與Winstanley, Cocker和Rogers (2011)的研究結(jié)果一致, 他們讓老鼠通過操控?zé)襞萘料〝?shù)量來誘發(fā)不同性質(zhì)的結(jié)果。研究發(fā)現(xiàn), near-miss結(jié)果能引起多巴胺水平的提高, 增強(qiáng)老鼠的獎賞預(yù)期, 促使老鼠持續(xù)按鍵反應(yīng)(Winstanley et al., 2011)。
Clark等(2009)認(rèn)為, 如果認(rèn)知曲解假說解釋恰當(dāng), near-miss輸錢結(jié)果應(yīng)該像贏錢一樣使個體感到高興而不像一般輸錢那樣使個體感到不高興。于是, 在他們的研究中, 讓被試對老虎機(jī)賭博中遇到的不同類型結(jié)果(如win、full-loss、near-miss loss)進(jìn)行情緒評定, 結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)一般的贏錢被評價為比較高興, 但near-miss輸錢結(jié)果被評價為不高興, 甚至比一般的輸錢更不高興(也見Qi, Ding, Song, & Yang, 2011; 索濤,馮廷勇, 賈世偉, 李紅, 2009)。因此, Clark等(2009)反對認(rèn)知曲解假說, 提出控制幻覺理論來解釋這種現(xiàn)象。他們認(rèn)為near-miss結(jié)果的物理屬性會引起控制幻覺, 能影響隨后的賭博決策是因為這些結(jié)果的出現(xiàn)被賭徒錯誤地解釋為賭博技能提升的信號, 因而產(chǎn)生了賭博中的控制幻覺。他們認(rèn)為, 在真實技能游戲中, 盡管缺乏相關(guān)強(qiáng)化物, 但near-miss結(jié)果能傳遞技能提高的信息, 例如, 在籃球比賽中, 投3分球時能砸中球框所表現(xiàn)出的個體技能遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)比其投空球的技能要高; 但在像彩票抽獎或老虎機(jī)這樣的背景下, 贏錢由幾率決定, 此時這個邏輯就不成立, 但是一些賭徒還是錯誤地認(rèn)定near-miss結(jié)果的出現(xiàn)意味著他們賭博技能的提高, 隨后更有可能贏大錢(也見Clark, Liu, McKavanagh, Garrett, Dunn, Aitken, 2013)。Billieux等(2012)也發(fā)現(xiàn), 技能傾向的賭博認(rèn)知會導(dǎo)致near-miss結(jié)果增強(qiáng)繼續(xù)賭博的動機(jī)。他們推測, near-miss結(jié)果可能通過傳遞技能提高的信息, 進(jìn)而增強(qiáng)繼續(xù)賭博動機(jī)。
Clark等(2009)發(fā)現(xiàn), 盡管near-miss結(jié)果誘發(fā)了不高興的情緒, 甚至比一般的輸錢更強(qiáng)烈, 但near-miss結(jié)果激活的腦區(qū)與贏錢激活的腦區(qū)相重疊。針對Clark等(2009)研究中行為結(jié)果和腦功能激活結(jié)果存在的矛盾, 大量研究(Dixon et al., 2011; Dixon et al., 2013; Larche et., 2017)發(fā)現(xiàn), 輸錢會使人產(chǎn)生挫折感, near-miss輸錢使被試產(chǎn)生挫折感的強(qiáng)度比一般輸錢更強(qiáng), 且相應(yīng)的各種生理反應(yīng)更強(qiáng)。因此, 也有人試圖提出一種受挫假說來解釋這種現(xiàn)象(Dixon et al., 2011;Dixon, MacLaren, Jarick, Fugelsang, & Harrigan, 2013)。這種解釋指出, 相比一般輸錢, near-miss輸錢結(jié)果使個體產(chǎn)生更復(fù)雜的受挫情緒, 這種情緒狀態(tài)更會激發(fā)個體通過進(jìn)一步下注贏錢撈本以挽回當(dāng)前尷尬的局面(Stange, Graydon, Dixon, 2016, 2017; Stange, Grau, Osazuwa, Graydon, & Dixon, 2017)。最近一些生理研究證實了這一看法(Dixon et al., 2011; Dixon et al., 2013)。
縱觀以上三種理論解釋, 最終可歸結(jié)為結(jié)果評價理論解釋的兩大爭論:強(qiáng)化學(xué)習(xí)理論(the reinforcement-learning theory, Holroyd & Coles, 2002)和情感動機(jī)假說(the motivational/affective hypothesis, Gehring & Willoughby, 2002 )。前兩者解釋都認(rèn)為near-miss輸錢通過增強(qiáng)獎賞預(yù)期提升個體持續(xù)賭博動機(jī), 它們都屬于強(qiáng)化學(xué)習(xí)理論的范疇, 但二者的具體分歧在于:認(rèn)知曲解假說把near-miss輸錢結(jié)果直接看作和贏錢一樣的獎賞強(qiáng)化物, 從而增強(qiáng)個體的獎賞預(yù)期; 而控制幻覺理論則認(rèn)為near-miss輸錢能引起自我技能的提升, 進(jìn)而增強(qiáng)個體的獎賞預(yù)期。但受挫假說則認(rèn)為near-miss輸錢會導(dǎo)致令人不快的復(fù)雜挫折情緒, 為了盡快改變這種不快的狀態(tài), 繼而激發(fā)個體持續(xù)賭博的動機(jī), 這屬于情感動機(jī)假說的范疇。
值得注意的是, 最近一些研究(Clark et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2007; Liu, Hairston, Schrier, & Fan, 2011; Qi et al., 2011; Sharman, & Clark, 2016; Wu et al., 2017; 索濤等, 2009)也認(rèn)為反事實思維和后悔情緒(Byrne, 2016; Epstude, & Roese, 2008; Roese, 1997; Roese, & Epstude, 2017)在near-miss效應(yīng)產(chǎn)生中可能起著重要的影響作用, 相比一般的輸錢, near-miss輸錢誘發(fā)的反事實思維和后悔情緒增強(qiáng)個體的控制幻覺, 從而產(chǎn)生更強(qiáng)烈的獎賞預(yù)期, 進(jìn)而引起持續(xù)賭博的強(qiáng)烈動機(jī)和行為。
由于near-miss結(jié)果的特殊性(感覺上非常接近贏錢但實質(zhì)上輸錢), 因此在決策結(jié)果反饋加工階段可能會引起更加復(fù)雜的腦活動。最近, 腦功能成像(fMRI)研究采用不同的實驗范式考察了賭博任務(wù)中near-miss效應(yīng)涉及到的腦功能區(qū), 這些研究主要涉及到包括腹側(cè)紋狀體(ventral striatum, VS)、前腦島(anterior insula, AI)、前額葉(prefrontal cortex,包括內(nèi)側(cè)前額葉、眶額葉)、前扣帶回(anterior cingulated cortex, ACC)、額下回(inferior frontal gyrus, IFG)、杏仁核(amygdala)、頂下葉(inferior parietal lobule, IPL)、下丘腦(bilateral inferior thalamic)在內(nèi)的從大腦前額到頂部以及旁邊緣系統(tǒng)等多巴胺獎賞系統(tǒng)功能區(qū)(Barton et al., 2017; Clark et al., 2009; Clark et al., 2014; Dymond et al., 2014; Habib & Dixon, 2010; Liu et al., 2011; Sescousse et al., 2016; Shao et al., 2013; van Holst, Chase, & Clark, 2014; Worhunsky et al., 2014)。盡管這些不同實驗范式的fMRI研究并沒有得出完全一致的結(jié)論, 但這些研究涉及到的腦區(qū)域最多的是腹側(cè)紋狀體和腦島。
腹側(cè)紋狀體由伏隔核(nucleus accumbens, NAcc)和嗅結(jié)節(jié)(olfactory tubercle, OT)組成, 是基底核的一部分。作為多巴胺神經(jīng)獎賞系統(tǒng)的重要組成部分, 在獎賞信息(大小、效價、凸顯性、意義等)加工和學(xué)習(xí)、動機(jī)產(chǎn)生和決策中發(fā)揮著多重作用(Liu et al., 2011; Murty, Stanek, & Heusser, 2013; Tremblay, Worbe, & Hollerman, 2009; Zaehle et al., 2013; Zeighami, & Moustafa, 2015)。near-miss效應(yīng)的fMRI研究發(fā)現(xiàn)near-miss輸錢和贏錢一樣激活了腹側(cè)紋狀體(Clark et al., 2009; Chase, & Clark, 2010; Sescousse et al., 2016; Shao et al., 2013; van Holst et al., 2014), 但near-miss輸錢激活的腹側(cè)紋狀體活動沒有贏錢激活的強(qiáng)烈(Clark et al., 2009; Shao et al., 2013)。而且Chase和Clark (2010)還發(fā)現(xiàn), near-miss結(jié)果激活的腹側(cè)紋狀體活動強(qiáng)度能被賭徒的賭癮嚴(yán)重程度所預(yù)測, 賭癮越嚴(yán)重, 腹側(cè)紋狀體活動越強(qiáng)烈; 同時他們也發(fā)現(xiàn), 與健康控制組相比, 問題賭徒的贏錢和near-miss結(jié)果誘發(fā)的腹側(cè)紋狀體反應(yīng)活動更加強(qiáng)烈(也參見Sescousse et al., 2016; van Holst et al., 2014)。因此, 他們認(rèn)為, 賭徒錯誤地把賭博中near-miss結(jié)果感知為更加接近贏錢, 進(jìn)而增強(qiáng)了獎賞系統(tǒng)中多巴胺的傳輸, 進(jìn)一步導(dǎo)致賭博紊亂加重。
腦島是唯一完全隱藏在腦組織內(nèi)的高級腦葉。腦島由額下回后部、顳葉和頂葉形成的島蓋(Operculum)環(huán)繞覆蓋, 隱藏于側(cè)裂內(nèi), 以外側(cè)裂為中心, 大體上呈倒三角錐形。它通過上縱束、鉤狀束、額枕束及前聯(lián)合與額葉、顳葉、頂葉、枕葉以及包括前扣帶皮層、腹內(nèi)側(cè)前額葉皮層、杏仁核和腹側(cè)紋狀體等在內(nèi)的其他邊緣系統(tǒng)相聯(lián)(李健, 戴西件, 廖婷, 龔洪翰, 2015; Namkung, Kim, & Sawa, 2017)。腦島大致可分為前腦島與后腦島, 前腦島主要接收和整合來自前扣帶皮層, 腹內(nèi)側(cè)前額葉皮層, 杏仁核和腹側(cè)紋狀體等與之相連的邊緣區(qū)域的認(rèn)知、情緒和動機(jī)方面的信息; 后部主要接收頂葉、枕葉和顳葉皮層輸入的前庭系統(tǒng)和視覺運(yùn)動等信息, 同時還通過丘腦接收來自脊髓和腦干的上行軀體內(nèi)臟感覺信息(Namkung et al., 2017)。大量的腦結(jié)構(gòu)和功能神經(jīng)成像研究表明, 腦島是多種信息整合的共同核心體, 在內(nèi)感性、自我意識、共情、公平感、道德認(rèn)知加工、反事實思維、情緒體驗、動機(jī)、各類成癮、決策和推理加工等諸多心理過程中發(fā)揮著重要的作用(Downar, Blumberger, & Daskalakis., 2016; Goodkind, et al., 2015; Namkung et al., 2017)。早期的near-miss效應(yīng)的fMRI研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 與一般輸錢(full-loss)相比, near-miss輸錢也明顯激活了前腦島, 同時near-miss誘發(fā)的前腦島活動強(qiáng)度與被試的賭博相關(guān)認(rèn)知評分(the gambling-related cognitions scale, GRCS)以及near-miss結(jié)果誘發(fā)其持續(xù)賭博的動機(jī)強(qiáng)度都呈正相關(guān)(Clark et al., 2009; Chase, & Clark, 2010), 這表明個體的賭博錯誤認(rèn)知越嚴(yán)重, 持續(xù)賭博的動機(jī)越強(qiáng)烈, 前腦島的激活就越強(qiáng)烈。van Holst等(2014)研究也表明, near-miss結(jié)果誘發(fā)的雙側(cè)腦島活動強(qiáng)度與問題賭博的嚴(yán)重性密切相關(guān)。Sescousse等(2016)也發(fā)現(xiàn), 無論是正??刂平M還是病理性賭徒, 與full-miss結(jié)果相比, near-miss結(jié)果在雙側(cè)腦島激活更強(qiáng)的BOLD信號。還有, Dymond等(2014)不但發(fā)現(xiàn)near-miss結(jié)果和贏錢一樣激活腦島和右側(cè)額下回, 同時與full-loss結(jié)果相比, near-miss結(jié)果明顯激活前額葉、右腦島、額下回、額中回和雙側(cè)下丘腦等。Dymond等(2014)還發(fā)現(xiàn), near-miss結(jié)果在腦島和右側(cè)眶額葉皮層(OFC)激發(fā)的θ波段(4~7 Hz)震蕩與賭博成癮的嚴(yán)重程度呈正相關(guān)。θ波段增強(qiáng)可能反映了對反饋結(jié)果與相關(guān)任務(wù)的主動認(rèn)知與情感加工(Christie & Tata, 2009; Do?amayor, Marco- Pallarés, Heldmann, Schoenfeld, & Münte., 2011)。另外, Naqvi, Rudrauf, Damasio, 和 Bechara (2007)發(fā)現(xiàn), 與大腦其他部位受損的病人相比, 腦島受損的病人能很快停止吸煙, 不會對吸煙長期渴求。動物研究(Contreras, Ceric, & Torrealba, 2007)也表明, 腦島鈍化能使有安非他明(苯異丙胺)體驗的老鼠降低對安非他明的渴求行為。由此推斷, 腦島在near-miss效應(yīng)產(chǎn)生中的作用很可能與它在調(diào)節(jié)個體對毒品(Naqvi & Bechara, 2009)、食物(Tang, Fellows, Small, & Dagher, 2012)以及其它成癮(Clark & Limbrick- Old?eld, 2013; Hommer, Bjork, & Gilman., 2011)等的主觀渴求中的作用一致。最值得注意的是, Clark等(2014)進(jìn)一步對比了腦島、腹內(nèi)側(cè)前額葉(ventromedial prefrontal cortex, VMPFC)和杏仁核受損的三組病人對near-miss結(jié)果的行為反應(yīng), 結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)腦島受損病人的near-miss效應(yīng)消失, 而其他兩組病人的near-miss效應(yīng)表現(xiàn)正常。這直接證實了腦島在near-miss效應(yīng)的產(chǎn)生中發(fā)揮著關(guān)鍵的作用。
另外, Habib和Dixon (2010)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 相對一般輸錢, near-miss只激活了頂下葉(inferior parietal lobule, IPL); Worhunsky等(2014)發(fā)現(xiàn)near-miss結(jié)果增強(qiáng)了枕葉(occipital lobule)、后扣帶回(posterior cingulate cortex, PCC)、頂下葉(inferior parietal lobule, IPL)、頂上葉(superior parietal lobule, SPL)的活動。
總之, 考慮到near-miss結(jié)果誘發(fā)的生理喚醒(Clark et al., 2012; Dixon, MacLaren, Jarick, Fugelsang, & Harrigan., 2013)和前腦島的內(nèi)感性以及在情緒、認(rèn)知和動機(jī)方面的整合功能(Namkung et al., 2017), 由此我們推斷, 腦島在near-miss效應(yīng)中很可能通過整合來自腹側(cè)紋狀體的獎賞加工(Liu et al., 2011)、前扣帶回的預(yù)期沖突(Clark et al., 2009;Holroyd et al., 2004)、眶額葉的反事實思維加工和情緒體驗(Dymond et al., 2014; Chua, Gonzalez, Taylor, Welsh, & Liberzon, 2009; Hoeck et al., 2013; Levens et al., 2014)等多個腦區(qū)域的信息, 進(jìn)而產(chǎn)生明確的外顯性動機(jī)和強(qiáng)烈的欲望, 促使個體持續(xù)賭博行為。
由于事件相關(guān)電位(ERP)技術(shù)在高時間分辨率上的優(yōu)勢,一些研究(Alicart et al., 2015; Dymond et al., 2014; Lole et al., 2013; Lole, Gonsalvez, & Barry, 2015; Luo, Wang, & Qu, 2011; Qi et al., 2011; Ulrich, & Hewig, 2014; 索濤等, 2009)也利用ERP技術(shù)探討了near-miss效應(yīng)的電生理時間進(jìn)程。盡管這些研究得出的結(jié)論并不完全一致, 部分甚至相反, 但這些研究都涉及到?jīng)Q策評價中常見的兩個特異性腦電成分:反饋負(fù)波(feedback-related negativity, FRN)和P300 (Gehring & Willoughby, 2002; Hajcak, Moser, Holroyd, & Simons, 2007; Holroyd, & Coles, 2002; Nieuwenhuis, Holroyd, Mol, & Coles, 2004; Nieuwenhuis, Aston-Jones, & Cohen, 2005)。
FRN是由反饋結(jié)果呈現(xiàn)后250~300 ms內(nèi)誘發(fā)的一個特定負(fù)波, 其在大腦頭皮前中部波幅最大。源定位分析表明, FRN的發(fā)生源位于ACC或內(nèi)側(cè)前額葉(medial frontal cortex, MFC) (Gehring, & Willoughby, 2002; Holroyd & Coles, 2002)。對FRN的理論解釋具有代表性的是強(qiáng)化學(xué)習(xí)理論(the reinforcement-learning theory)和情感動機(jī)假說(the motivational/affective hypothesis)。強(qiáng)化學(xué)習(xí)理論(Holroyd & Coles, 2002)認(rèn)為, FRN是中腦多巴胺信號對ACC產(chǎn)生影響的結(jié)果, 不利的預(yù)期錯誤信號(比如, 行為結(jié)果比預(yù)期的不好)引起多巴胺系統(tǒng)相位活動減弱, 這些信息傳輸?shù)紸CC就產(chǎn)生了較大的FRN。Wu和Zhou (2009)進(jìn)一步認(rèn)為, “預(yù)期錯誤”不僅包括結(jié)果效價(例如, 輸贏、正誤)上的預(yù)期, 而且也應(yīng)包括那些結(jié)果是否符合事先確定的且無效價的預(yù)期, 且預(yù)期偏離越大, 產(chǎn)生的FRN越大。情感動機(jī)假說(Gehring & Willoughby, 2002)認(rèn)為, FRN本身并不反映行為評價或預(yù)期錯誤監(jiān)測的認(rèn)知加工, 而是反映了對不利結(jié)果引起的動機(jī)情感的評估加工。由于在賭博游戲中參與者的最終意圖是為了贏更多的錢, 所以當(dāng)輸錢結(jié)果出現(xiàn)時意味著預(yù)期偏離, 因此相比贏錢會誘發(fā)更大的FRN, 這個結(jié)果已經(jīng)得到大量研究一致證實(Nieuwenhuis et al., 2004)。由于near-miss輸錢結(jié)果的特殊性, 盡管實質(zhì)上輸錢, 但個體總會把它錯誤地知覺為非常接近贏錢, 根據(jù)強(qiáng)化學(xué)習(xí)理論, near-miss結(jié)果誘發(fā)的FRN波幅應(yīng)該介于贏錢和完全輸錢(full-miss)之間。Luo等(2011)和Lole等(2013)的研究(Lole et al., 2013; Luo et al., 2011)證實了這一推論。但另一些研究(Kreussel, Hewig, Kretschmer, Hecht, Coles, & Miltner, 2013; Ulrich, & Hewig, 2014)卻發(fā)現(xiàn), near-miss輸錢誘發(fā)的FRN波幅反而比full-miss輸錢和贏錢誘發(fā)的都大, 這似乎和動機(jī)情感假說一致, near-miss輸錢引起更大的情感動機(jī), 進(jìn)而表現(xiàn)出來FRN波幅更大。還有一些研究(Alicart et al., 2015; Qi et al., 2011; 索濤等, 2009)報告near-miss輸錢結(jié)果與full-miss輸錢結(jié)果誘發(fā)的FRN并沒有明顯差異。這些研究結(jié)果用強(qiáng)化學(xué)習(xí)理論和情感動機(jī)假說都無法解釋。
P300是反饋結(jié)果呈現(xiàn)后300~600 ms出現(xiàn)的一種多源性正波, 是大腦多個皮層聯(lián)合活動的結(jié)果, 在注意、記憶、情緒和決策等研究領(lǐng)域備受關(guān)注(Polich, 2012; Nieuwenhuiset al., 2005)。在決策結(jié)果評價中P300很可能反映了個體對反饋刺激功能意義的評價 (Nieuwenhuis et al., 2005; Wu & Zhou, 2009)。Yeung和Sanfey (2004)認(rèn)為P300是多重評價體系的產(chǎn)物, 既可能反映認(rèn)知評價也可能反映結(jié)果評價中誘發(fā)的情緒加工。索濤等(2009)最早在一項類老虎機(jī)任務(wù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)了near-miss結(jié)果的P300效應(yīng), near-miss輸錢誘發(fā)的P300波幅明顯比full-loss輸錢誘發(fā)的小。隨后Ulrich和Hewig (2014)的研究證實了這一結(jié)果。但Qi等(2011)和Alicart等(2015)的研究卻發(fā)現(xiàn), 贏錢誘發(fā)的P300波幅最大, near-miss輸錢誘發(fā)的次之, full-loss輸錢誘發(fā)的最小。另外, Luo等(2011)和Lole等(2013, 2015)的研究僅僅發(fā)現(xiàn)贏錢誘發(fā)的P300波幅最大, 但near-miss輸錢和full-loss輸錢誘發(fā)的P300波幅沒有明顯差異。
值得注意的是, 最近也有研究探討了near-miss效應(yīng)的EEG頻譜震蕩(Alicart et al., 2015; Dymond et al., 2014), 尤其θ波段(4~8 Hz)與near-miss效應(yīng)密切相關(guān)。Alicart等(2015)發(fā)現(xiàn), 與贏錢一樣, near-miss輸錢誘發(fā)的θ波段(4~8 Hz)、α波段(9~13 Hz)、低β波段(15~22 Hz)和β-γ波段(25~35 Hz)的震蕩都比full-loss輸錢結(jié)果誘發(fā)的大。Dymond等(2014)的腦磁圖(MEG)研究也發(fā)現(xiàn), near-miss輸錢結(jié)果在腦島和右側(cè)眶額葉皮層激發(fā)的θ波段(4~7 Hz)振蕩增強(qiáng)。而且, 這些θ波段(4~7 Hz)震蕩與賭博成癮的嚴(yán)重程度呈正相關(guān)。這些發(fā)現(xiàn)表明near-miss效應(yīng)的產(chǎn)生和腦島和眶額葉皮層的θ波振蕩密切相關(guān)。根據(jù)以往研究(Bernat, Malone, Williams, Patrick, & Iacono, 2007; Cavanagh & Frank, 2014), θ波振蕩與獎賞加工、選擇性注意、行為調(diào)節(jié)、認(rèn)知控制、工作記憶和學(xué)習(xí)等認(rèn)知加工密切相關(guān)。因此, 能體現(xiàn)預(yù)期偏離的凸顯性結(jié)果也會引起θ波振蕩(Bunzeck, Guitart-Masip, Dolan, Düzel, 2011; Cavanagh,Frank, Klein, & Allen, 2010; Mas- Herrero & Marco-Pallarés, 2014), near-miss結(jié)果的凸顯性屬性必將引起個體的選擇性注意和情感動機(jī), 進(jìn)而對隨后的行為和策略進(jìn)行調(diào)整和改變(Schultz, 2006)。
盡管近年來一些學(xué)者從行為反應(yīng)、神經(jīng)生理和腦成像層面對near-miss效應(yīng)進(jìn)行了初步研究, 基于以上的國內(nèi)外研究動態(tài)分析, 我們發(fā)現(xiàn)關(guān)于這種效應(yīng)的研究在以下幾個方面仍需要進(jìn)一步開展:
(1) near-miss效應(yīng)發(fā)生機(jī)制的理論模型建構(gòu)。盡管不少研究一致發(fā)現(xiàn)near-miss結(jié)果能增強(qiáng)個體的生理喚醒水平和進(jìn)一步不理性賭博的動機(jī)和行為, 對這種動機(jī)效應(yīng)的發(fā)生機(jī)制提出了不同的看法(Griffiths, 1991; Clark et al., 2009; Dixon et al., 2011; Dixon et al., 2013; Reid, 1986), 但至今并未達(dá)成一致, 且這些研究并未從動態(tài)結(jié)果評價的角度對near-miss結(jié)果評價的認(rèn)知過程進(jìn)行詳細(xì)的探討和闡述。最近一些研究強(qiáng)調(diào)了反事實思維在near-miss效應(yīng)產(chǎn)生中的作用(Sharman, & Clark, 2016; Wu et al., 2017)。反事實思維的研究(Roese, 1997; Roese, & Epstude, 2017)表明, 實際結(jié)果接近預(yù)期結(jié)果的程度會明顯影響反事實思維和決策后情緒(如后悔), 比如, 與遲到1個小時相比, 遲到5分鐘而未趕上航班會誘發(fā)更強(qiáng)的反事實思維和后悔情緒。另外, 反事實思維和后悔情緒會誘發(fā)個體產(chǎn)生盡快獲得機(jī)會重新行動的動機(jī), 以至于擺脫當(dāng)前不利的局面(Roese, 1997)。比如, 考試規(guī)定60分及格, 59分會使考生產(chǎn)生若能再給一次補(bǔ)考機(jī)會就能通過考試的強(qiáng)烈動機(jī), 這和賭博中near-miss結(jié)果誘發(fā)的繼續(xù)賭博以便撈本的動機(jī)非常類似。還有研究(Roese, & Olson, 1995)發(fā)現(xiàn),行為責(zé)任感和可控感的提高會明顯增強(qiáng)反事實思維的強(qiáng)度。另外, 行為結(jié)果對個體的意義也會調(diào)節(jié)結(jié)果評價的認(rèn)知過程(Schultz, 2006)。因此, 我們推測反事實思維在這種動機(jī)效應(yīng)的產(chǎn)生中可能起著關(guān)鍵作用, 且伴隨的后悔情緒、個體行為責(zé)任感和控制感以及賭博結(jié)果的意義等內(nèi)、外因素在調(diào)控這種效應(yīng)強(qiáng)度中也可能起著重要的影響作用?;谝陨戏治? 我們構(gòu)建了near-miss效應(yīng)發(fā)生機(jī)制的理論模型, 如圖2。為了驗證這個理論模型的恰當(dāng)性, 以后的研究可結(jié)合這個模型對涉及到的這些認(rèn)知影響因素逐一加以探討。
(2)實驗研究范式需進(jìn)一步整合和發(fā)展。以前研究多采用兩輪或多輪老虎機(jī)和類老虎機(jī)任務(wù)(見圖1), 在這類任務(wù)中, 參與者先從多個賭注圖標(biāo)中選出一個, 隨后若干組輪子開始旋轉(zhuǎn), 當(dāng)各組輪子都停止時其上面的圖標(biāo)都和選中的一樣時才能贏錢, 否則輸錢。這樣的任務(wù)可能會引入混淆變量:賭注圖標(biāo)的選取會使參與者在持續(xù)賭博中產(chǎn)生賭徒謬誤或熱手謬誤, 影響隨后的行為動機(jī), 進(jìn)而會和near-miss誘發(fā)的動機(jī)效應(yīng)相混淆。同時, 這些任務(wù)在操作行為控制感方面也存在一定的局限性。另外, 最近有研究也發(fā)現(xiàn)一些手機(jī)游戲(比如, 糖果傳奇)中也存在near-miss效應(yīng), 導(dǎo)致個體沉溺于手機(jī)游戲不可自拔(Larche et al., 2017)。因此, 隨后的研究應(yīng)從不同的角度設(shè)計多種能誘發(fā)near-miss結(jié)果的博彩游戲任務(wù), 比如, 從結(jié)果的時間、空間、數(shù)字的接近性等多角度設(shè)計實驗任務(wù)。這樣, 可以使用不同實驗范式對同一現(xiàn)象進(jìn)行研究, 以便互相驗證所得結(jié)果的可靠性。
(3)利用多模態(tài)腦成像技術(shù)進(jìn)一步探討near-miss效應(yīng)的發(fā)生腦神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)機(jī)制?;谇笆? 盡管大量的研究采用fMRI、ERP等腦功能成像技術(shù)研究了這種現(xiàn)象的腦神經(jīng)機(jī)制, 但這些研究得出的結(jié)果并不完全一致, 甚至相反。例如, 一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn)腦島和腹側(cè)紋狀體在near-miss效應(yīng)產(chǎn)生中發(fā)揮著重要的作用, 但也有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)眶額葉、扣帶回、額下回和頂葉等諸多腦區(qū)也涉入其中。這些腦區(qū)如何關(guān)聯(lián)和交互作用, 至今也并不十分清楚。因此, 未來的研究需要結(jié)合像fMRI、MEG等多種腦功能成像技術(shù)對near-miss效應(yīng)的腦神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)機(jī)制進(jìn)行深入的拓展與探討。另外, 腦電方面的研究仍需要進(jìn)一步發(fā)展。例如, Suo等(2009)和Qi等(2011)的研究僅發(fā)現(xiàn)near-miss效應(yīng)的P300效應(yīng)(也見Alicart et al., 2015; Ulrich, & Hewig, 2014), 但Luo等(2011)和Lole等(2013)的研究卻僅發(fā)現(xiàn)near-miss效應(yīng)的FRN效應(yīng)。未來的腦電研究應(yīng)采用高級的EEG頻譜分析技術(shù)對比和探討不同實驗范式下EEG信號差異及其原因。
圖2 near-miss效應(yīng)的產(chǎn)生機(jī)制設(shè)想圖
(4) near-miss效應(yīng)的病理和臨床研究進(jìn)一步深入化。對near-miss效應(yīng)腦神經(jīng)機(jī)制及其在賭博成癮中作用的研究可以發(fā)掘用于診斷病態(tài)賭博成癮的行為指標(biāo)、電生理指標(biāo)以及腦功能信號, 同時可以為病態(tài)賭博成癮的干預(yù)與矯正提供新的途徑。盡管已有fMRI研究探討了病態(tài)賭博群體和正常群體在near-miss效應(yīng)上的行為與腦神經(jīng)活動差異(Chase, & Clark, 2010; Sescousse et al., 2016; van Holst et al., 2014), 但關(guān)于near-miss效應(yīng)的病理成癮的臨床研究才剛剛起步, near-miss效應(yīng)與賭博成癮之間的關(guān)系還不甚清楚。因此, 利用ERP、fMRI等多模態(tài)技術(shù)探討病態(tài)賭博成癮中near-miss效應(yīng)的病理機(jī)制仍是今后研究的一個重要方向。還有, Nastally和Dixon (2012)發(fā)現(xiàn), 臨床干預(yù)能明顯減弱病理性賭徒的near-miss效應(yīng), 病理性賭徒接受正念訓(xùn)練(mindfulness exercises)后自我報告near-miss結(jié)果接近贏錢的程度明顯降低, near-miss效應(yīng)明顯減弱, 賭博成癮的程度明顯緩解。因此, 以研究near-miss效應(yīng)的病理機(jī)制和干預(yù)方法為契機(jī), 探究各類行為和生理刺激方法對病理性賭癮的臨床干預(yù)也是未來研究非常值得關(guān)注的一個方向。
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The near-miss effect in gambling games
SUO Tao1; YANG Yan2; FAN Zeng1; WANG Mengmeng1; ZHAO Guoxiang1
(1Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Institute of cognition, Brain and Health, College of Education and Science, Henan University;2School of Economics, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China)
The near-miss effect refers to a phenomenon that near-miss losses can elicit individuals’ higher physiological arousal and stronger gambling motivation than full-miss losses and winnings, which could lead to gambling persistence of gamblers. Researches on the near-miss effect have important theoretical value for understanding the cognitive and neural mechanisms of dynamic outcome evaluation in decision-making processes and shedding light on the mechanisms of pathological gambling. Studies have found convergent evidence that near-miss losses have motivationally enhancing properties. However, the cognitive and neural mechanisms of the near-miss effect are still under debate. In addition, the role that the near-miss effect played in pathological gambling is still unclear. At present, there are three main theoretical explanations for the near-miss effect: the cognitive misrepresentation hypothesis, the illusion of control theory, and the frustration hypothesis. The neural correlates of the near-miss effect mainly involve the insula and ventral striatum. Future researches should further explore the theoretical models of the near-miss effect, improve the experimental paradigm, various research methods, and examine the effect in pathological populations.
near-miss effect; the cognitive misrepresentationhypothesis; the illusion of control theory; the frustration hypothesis; insula; ventral striatum
2017-09-22
* 國家自然科學(xué)基金青年項目(31400908)、中國博士后科學(xué)基金面上項目(2014M551995)、河南省哲學(xué)社科規(guī)劃項目(2015BJY007)、河南省高等學(xué)校重點科研項目(16A190001)資助。
趙國祥, E-mail: zhaogx@henu.edu.cn; 索濤, E-mail: suotao810815@163.com
B849:C91
10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01689