浦麗萍
作為獲取知識(shí)的一個(gè)主要方式,閱讀即為讀者已有信息和閱讀文本之間相互作用的過(guò)程。影響閱讀理解的因素有很多,包括讀者的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)、閱讀技巧以及讀者已有的文化背景知識(shí)等。其中,讀者已有背景知識(shí)在一定程度上決定著讀者的閱讀水平。換句話說(shuō),讀者掌握的相關(guān)背景知識(shí)越多,越有利于他們理解閱讀文本。
任何言語(yǔ)交際都基于交際雙方共有的背景知識(shí)和信息而進(jìn)行,這種假設(shè)被稱為預(yù)設(shè),最早是由Stalnaker(1970)提出,指說(shuō)話人所傳遞的信息應(yīng)具備的合適性和共知性,它所表達(dá)的或隱含的是說(shuō)話人對(duì)聽(tīng)話人知識(shí)狀態(tài)的一種假設(shè)。換句話說(shuō),在言語(yǔ)交際中,發(fā)話者會(huì)根據(jù)自己的假設(shè)將受話者已經(jīng)了解或被認(rèn)為已經(jīng)了解的信息處理為預(yù)設(shè)信息。合適性和共知性是言語(yǔ)交際預(yù)設(shè)的基本特征,但在日常交際中,人們常常會(huì)遇到因預(yù)設(shè)的不合適或交際雙方缺乏必要的共知信息而導(dǎo)致交際受挫的情況。
例1:
Professor:Good morning,Mr.Smith.
Gardener:Good morning,Professor.
Professor:The weather is salubrious today,isn't it?
Gardener:Oh...I think we are having a fine day today.
Professor:Do you find the nettles very hard to eradicate?
Gardener:I don't know what you mean.Yet I do find the nettles very hard to keep down these days.
Professor:The nettles disseminate themselves most luxuriantly under favorable weather.
Gardener:Oh,Dear Professor,I could make little sense of what you are talking about.I am afraid I'll have to go ahead with my handiwork.
Professor:Even a gardener doesn't want to talk with me...(改編自A.G.Gardener“Oh Big Words”)
從園丁的回答中,可以明顯看出他根本沒(méi)有聽(tīng)懂教授的意思,這是因?yàn)樵谒谋尘爸R(shí)中沒(méi)有教授在對(duì)話中預(yù)設(shè)的“salubrious”“disseminate”“l(fā)uxuriantly”等詞語(yǔ)的概念。換句話說(shuō),教授的對(duì)話預(yù)設(shè)不合適。
例2:
Student A:You know that I was just going to sit down when I spotted Mr.Zhang in the row in front of mine.He was with his wife and his daughter.To make matters worse,something was wrong with the projector that day.Therefore the whole cinema was so bright with all the lights on that I...
Student B:Wait a minute.Who is Mr.Zhang you have been talking about all the time?
Student A:Don't you know him? Mr.Zhang? I thought you knew him.He is our Intensive Reading teacher who is very strict with us and has warned me several times not to waste any time for study.
學(xué)生A 和學(xué)生B 講述在電影院偶遇張老師一家的尷尬和窘迫,然而學(xué)生B 根本不知道學(xué)生A 口中的張老師究竟是何許人也,當(dāng)然也就沒(méi)法理解學(xué)生A 當(dāng)時(shí)的心情。當(dāng)學(xué)生A 對(duì)所預(yù)設(shè)的信息做了解釋,學(xué)生B 才理解學(xué)生A 在電影院偶遇張老師一家時(shí)的尷尬和窘迫。
在口語(yǔ)交際中,如果出現(xiàn)信息傳遞者的語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)不合適,或者信息接收者缺乏信息傳遞者假設(shè)已經(jīng)掌握的信息時(shí),信息接收者可以要求信息傳遞者修正或澄清語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)。在以閱讀語(yǔ)篇為載體的信息傳遞過(guò)程中,雖然作者也“通常會(huì)假設(shè)作品的隱含讀者與自己擁有共同的知識(shí)和經(jīng)歷,甚至相同的價(jià)值觀”而進(jìn)行預(yù)設(shè),但其語(yǔ)用預(yù)設(shè)具有單向性,即預(yù)設(shè)是由作者單方面做出,在被讀者處理之前它只相對(duì)于作者自己而存在。與面對(duì)面信息傳遞方式不同的是,語(yǔ)篇作者向面廣量大的讀者傳遞信息,語(yǔ)篇作者不可能也沒(méi)有必要時(shí)刻考慮其預(yù)設(shè)信息是否為所有讀者所共知。另外,語(yǔ)篇的讀者也不可能像面對(duì)面交流時(shí)可要求對(duì)方修正或澄清預(yù)設(shè)的合適性或共知性。作者在創(chuàng)作閱讀語(yǔ)篇時(shí)通過(guò)“背景信息”或舊的信息來(lái)傳遞“前景信息”或新的信息。“前景信息”是作者明確交代的信息,而“背景信息”則是作者所預(yù)設(shè)的讀者和作者雙方應(yīng)共知的信息。
在語(yǔ)篇閱讀中,由于讀者和作者之間缺乏一種直接的交流,讀者無(wú)法要求作者給予信息澄清或提供必要的背景知識(shí),有時(shí)往往因?yàn)槿狈Ρ匾谋尘爸R(shí),感到文章內(nèi)容前后不連貫或者脈絡(luò)不清,難以跟上作者的思路,無(wú)法準(zhǔn)確地獲取作者傳遞的信息。為了能夠理解作者所表達(dá)的含義,讀者不僅需要掌握足夠的語(yǔ)言知識(shí),而且需要相當(dāng)?shù)奈幕尘爸R(shí)。為幫助學(xué)生克服語(yǔ)言知識(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)不完善、文化知識(shí)面狹窄的困難,英語(yǔ)閱讀教學(xué)應(yīng)有意識(shí)地將文化背景知識(shí)有機(jī)融合于語(yǔ)言知識(shí)傳授之中。
例3:
Customer:How come that your sausages taste like meat at one end but like bread at the other?
Butcher:Madam,in times like these no butcher can make both ends meat.
Customer:You mean all the other butchers enjoy cheating customers as you do?
Butcher:No,Madam.All I mean is that we butchers are all having a hard time supporting the families.
很顯然,賣(mài)肉的商販在對(duì)話中所預(yù)設(shè)的成語(yǔ)“to make both ends meet”的意義(難以維持生計(jì))超出了顧客的背景知識(shí),更不用說(shuō)“meet”和“meat”兩詞同音雙關(guān)的諧用。因此,在意識(shí)到顧客沒(méi)能聽(tīng)懂他的言外之意而顯得有些生氣時(shí),商販立刻就對(duì)話中的預(yù)設(shè)信息作了補(bǔ)充以平息顧客的惱怒。但在語(yǔ)篇閱讀時(shí),如果讀者對(duì)“to make both ends meet”的意義以及“meet”和“meat”兩詞同音雙關(guān)的諧用無(wú)法理解,作者發(fā)出的信息就會(huì)被曲解甚至誤解。
例4:
Father:Tom,how come you failed the test again!Didn't you remember what I told you last week? You should have read between the lines while reading the passage in the test paper.
Tom:Dad,I did exactly as what you told me to do,but I saw anything between the lines.
父親預(yù)設(shè)的英語(yǔ)成語(yǔ)“read between the lines”超越了湯姆的知識(shí)儲(chǔ)備;相反,湯姆只是從字面上理解了“read between the lines”,因而覺(jué)得自己很冤枉。原因是考試時(shí)他確實(shí)按照父親的意思去做了,即在所讀文章的行與行中認(rèn)真查找,結(jié)果什么也沒(méi)有發(fā)現(xiàn)。如果在閱讀過(guò)程中發(fā)現(xiàn)文章的預(yù)設(shè)高于自己的知識(shí)儲(chǔ)備,則很有可能遭遇理解障礙。
例5:
The more prosaic technical and political discussion groups,meanwhile,have become so crowded with writers crying for attention that a Darwinian survival principle has started to prevail.“It's so competitive that you have to work on your style if you want to make any impact,”says Jorn Barger,a software designer in Chicago.Good writing on the Net tends to be clear,vigorous,witty and above all brief.“The medium favors the terse,”says Crawford Kilian,a writing teacher at Capilano College in Vancouver,British Columbia.“Short paragraphs,bulleted lists and one-liners are the units of thought here.”(選自Bards of the InternetBy Phillip Elmer-DeWitt)
“適者生存”是達(dá)爾文進(jìn)化論的核心。根據(jù)生物進(jìn)化論,每種生物在繁殖下一代時(shí),都會(huì)出現(xiàn)基因的變異。若變異是有利于這種生物更好的生活,它就會(huì)通過(guò)環(huán)境的篩選,以“適者生存”的方式保留下來(lái)。作者在此處預(yù)設(shè)了“適者生存”(Darwinian survival principle)的進(jìn)化論法則,以便闡明互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上寫(xiě)手的優(yōu)勝劣汰。在那些平庸點(diǎn)的技術(shù)與政治討論組,大量寫(xiě)手紛紛涌入,頻頻鼓噪,以期奪人耳目,于是達(dá)爾文“適者生存”的法則開(kāi)始應(yīng)驗(yàn)。正如芝加哥的軟件設(shè)計(jì)師喬恩·巴格所說(shuō):“網(wǎng)絡(luò)上競(jìng)爭(zhēng)激烈,要想脫穎而出,就必須在風(fēng)格上下功夫?!本W(wǎng)上的優(yōu)秀作品通常風(fēng)格明快、機(jī)智簡(jiǎn)練。
例6:
For ultimately the product that any writer has to sell is not the subject being written about,but who he or she is.I often find myself reading with interest about a topic I never thought would interest me — some unusual scientific quest,for instance.What holds me is the enthusiasm of the writer for his field.How was he drawn into it?What emotional baggage did he bring along? How did it change his life? It's not necessary to want to spend a year alone at Walden Pond to become deeply involved with a writer who did(選自TransactionBy William Zinsser).
最后一句話可以解釋為:讀者不必孤身一人在瓦爾登湖(Walden Pond)畔待上一年,也能深切體會(huì)到作者的感悟。作者在此處做了一個(gè)預(yù)設(shè),即1845 年7 月到1847 年9 月期間美國(guó)作家梭羅曾經(jīng)獨(dú)自生活在瓦爾登湖邊。瓦爾登湖不僅為他提供了一個(gè)棲身之所,也為他提供了一種獨(dú)特的精神氛圍,之后他推出了《瓦爾登湖》。如果讀者知識(shí)儲(chǔ)備中沒(méi)有作者預(yù)設(shè)的有關(guān)瓦爾登湖的信息,就很難理解最后一句話隱含的意義。
英語(yǔ)閱讀理解不僅取決于學(xué)生對(duì)所學(xué)語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的掌握程度,而且也取決于許多非語(yǔ)言方面的因素,其中最重要的一點(diǎn)便是文化背景知識(shí)。那些知識(shí)面較寬、信息儲(chǔ)存量較大的學(xué)生,盡管在閱讀過(guò)程中也會(huì)碰到一些生詞,但由于對(duì)所讀材料的內(nèi)容較為熟悉,能夠根據(jù)已知信息做出準(zhǔn)確的推測(cè)和判斷。而那些知識(shí)面較窄、信息量較少的讀者,有時(shí)似乎對(duì)所讀材料中的詞句都有所了解,但因缺乏作者在文章中所預(yù)設(shè)的背景知識(shí)從而導(dǎo)致理解失敗。在英語(yǔ)閱讀教學(xué)中,教師應(yīng)將背景知識(shí)的導(dǎo)入貫穿于語(yǔ)言教學(xué)全過(guò)程。在傳授語(yǔ)言基本知識(shí)的同時(shí),應(yīng)鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生多涉獵各種書(shū)籍,擴(kuò)大知識(shí)面,廣泛積累英語(yǔ)文化、社會(huì)習(xí)俗及其他各類(lèi)學(xué)科知識(shí),以彌補(bǔ)背景知識(shí)和生活閱歷之不足,減少因缺乏文化背景知識(shí)而造成的理解困難。