Foreign Language School of Sichuan Minzu College,Kangding Sichuan,China Email:349721355qq@.com

[Abstract]Diet is the foundation of human civilization.Chinese diet has profound and rich connotation.Tibetan diet in Khams is an important component of Chinese diet culture.The names of Tibetan dishes in Khams contain many unique culture-loaded words.The key to translating the names of Tibetan dishes in Khams is to translate the cultureloaded words.The translation of Tibetan dishes’names in Khams will help enrich and expand the connotation of Tibetan diet culture,promoting the diversified communication of Chinese culture to the outside world,enhancing the communication and interaction between Tibetan diet culture in China and diet culture in English-speaking countries,promoting the development of local tourism and catering industry,improving the development of local economy.

[Keywords]Tibetan dishes;diet culture;culture-loaded words;Khampa

Introduction

Khampa is the second largest Tibetan region in China,covering the Changdu of Tibet Autonomous Region,Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan,Muli Autonomous County of Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province.Khampa is located in the transition zone between the inland and the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.(Lin,2013,pp.1-7)Diet culture is influenced and restricted by natural and social environments such as geography,climate,customs,economic development and cultural communication.The Diet Culture in Khampa has rich cultural connotation and presents obvious region characteristics.In Khampa,Tibetans are good at cooking traditional Tibetan dishes by using local materials,common condiments and simple cooking methods to keep the natural quality of food to the maximum.

Khampa is located in the high and cold region of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.The main ingredients of traditional Tibetan dishes in Khampa are mainly from farm crop suitable for growing in cold areas of the plateau,such as highland barley,wheat,corn,buckwheat,potatoes,peas,radish,cabbage,lettuce,celery,etc.Meat is mainly from the livestock,poultry suitable for breeding in plateau,such as:Yaks,lambs,pigs,chicken and so on.The Khampa is blessed with a rich variety of mountain delicacies,such as Tricholoma Matsutake,Boletus,Morchella,White Rare Fungus and Red Fungus.The Khampa plateau also boasts precious wild medicinal materials such as Aweto,Rhizoma Gastrodiae,Fritillaria,Droma and a variety of nutritious and delicious wild vegetables,such as Toona Sinensis,Bracken,Purslane,Dandelion etc....Tibetans in Khampa like drinking Yak Buttered Tea,Sweet Tea,Milk Tea,Bone Oil Tea,Milk,Yak Yogurt,Highland Barley Wine and so on.In Khampa those snacks are very popular among Tibetans:Fried Dough Twists,Tibetan Style,Big Cubed Boiled Potato,Chocolate,Tibetan Style,Yogurt Cake,Boiled Choma(Droma)With Tibetan Butter,Zanba,Sugar,Boiled Choma(Droma)With Yogurt,Sugar and other local specialties in plateau.

The condiments used in cooking Tibetan dishes in Khampa mainly include salt,MSG,Sichuan peppercorns,chilies,scallions,ginger,garlic,parsley,fennel,wild mint,wild onion,wild garlic,curry and starch.The raw material usually was cut into slice,shred,cube,dice,mince and so on.Common cooking methods are as follow:boiled,fried,roasted,braised,baked,fried etc.

Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Tibetan Dishes in Khampa

Culture-loaded words are the words,phrases and idioms that mark the unique meanings in a certain culture,which directly reflect the accumulation of a specific group in the long history,and are different from the unique way of activities of other groups.(Liao,2000,p.232)The name of the dish is to present the name information of the dish and the diet culture information of the dish to the diners in a clear,concise,accurate and even elegant expression to attract the diners’attention and whet their appetites,to stimulate their interest to taste the dish.The unique natural environment and cultural relics in Khampa have created the unique diet culture.Therefore,the Tibetan dish names contain many unique ethnic cultural words,namely,culture-loaded words.The translation of the names of dishes is not only the conversion between the two languages but also the cultural communication of the two languages.The correct understanding and translation of culture-loaded words of Tibetan dishes in Khampa is the key to improve the translation of Tibetan dishes.

Literal translation,transliteration,free translation or a combination of the above two or three methods are usually used in translation of culture-loaded words of Tibetan dishes in Khampa.Usually,transliteration needs to be combined with annotation.The Tibetan dishes in Khampa are complicated and colorful,with rich local characteristics and cultural connotations.It is difficult to translate names of Tibetan dishes,mainly because the names contain many characteristic culture-loaded words,and the connotation of Tibetan diet culture in Khampa is profound.

Translation Strategies for Culture-loaded Words on Dishes of“糌粑”and“酥油”

“糌粑”is a kind of staple food in Tibetan food,divided into pure and mixed“糌粑”.Pure“糌粑”is grinded powder of roasted Highland Barley and mixed“糌粑”is grinded powder of Highland Barley,Wheat,Peas,Sesame.When eating,they mix“糌粑”with buttered tea by their fingers,kneading into small balls to eat.“糌粑”can be mixed with tea,milk Tea,yogurt or highland barley wine to eat.“糌粑”is rich in nutrition,easy to be stored and kept,easy to be carried,so it has become a kind of staple food for Tibetan nomadic life in plateau of Khampa.“糌粑”contains unique culture-loaded word.By transliteration,“糌粑”can be translated as“Zanba”,free translation“Roasted Highland Barley Flour”,“Barley Flour”.Combination of transliteration and free translation“Roasted Qingke Barley Flour”,transliteration and annotation“Zanba(Roasted Highland Barley Flour)”and Tibetan Latin transliteration“Tsampa”“Tsamba”.

“青稞”is called“Nai”in Tibetan,which is a special type of barley,known as naked barley,Mi Da Mai,Yuan Mai,Huai Mai,because of the separation of its outer and inner glume,caryopsis,bare grain so it is called naked barley.The transliteration“Zanba”and the Latin transliteration“Tsampa”and“Tsamba”convey the name message of“糌粑”,the staple food,in a concise,clear and accurate way,making foreign diners experience a kind of new diet culture,inspiring their appetite to taste“糌粑”.From the cultural point of view of foreign diners,the free translation“Roasted Highland Barley Flour”conveys information of the main ingredients,shape and making method of“糌粑”in a way that is easy for readers to understand.“Barley Flour”presents information of main ingredients and shape of“糌粑”,but this kind of translation make foreign diners think of“糌粑”as ordinary Barley Flour which loses unique characteristics and culture implication of“糌粑”.Combination of transliteration and free translation,“Qingke”and“Barley Flour”are different expressions of the same name in“Roasted Qingke Barley Flour”,causing redundant information while the combination of transliteration and annotation“Zanba(Roasted Highland Barley Flour)”conveys unique ethnic and cultural message to foreign diners at the same time also caters to their language and cultural understanding.The writer thinks that the transliteration of Tibetan dish name“Zanba”and Tibetan Latin transliteration of“Tsampa”and“Tsamba”are effective translation strategies when dealing with the culture-loaded word“糌粑”.

“酥油”is the soul of Tibetan diet in Khampa.The Three Meals a Day of Tibetans in Khampa cannot be made without“酥油”.“酥油”can be used to make“酥油茶”,a daily drink for local Tibetans,which is usually taken together with their staple food Tsampa,and it can be used for cooking special local delicacies,such as“烤松茸”and“烤白菌”,as well as making all kinds of special snacks,such as“酥油人參果”,“酥油包子”,“酥油果子”,“酥油酸奶”,“藏式巧克力”.The Tibetan word for“酥油”is“瑪爾”.It is butter extracted directly from yak milk.It is a kind of dairy product,fatty butter.The expressions of culture loaded word“酥油”are“ghee”,“butter”,“yak butter”,“Tibetan Butter”.Ghee is purified semi-liquid butter used in Indian cooking.(Hornby,1997,p.620)

According to the explanation of“酥油”,Ghee is different from“酥油”used in Tibetan dishes in Khampa in raw material,way of cooking and eating,and the cultural implication is also different.Butter cannot convey the unique Tibetan dietetic culture contained in the“酥油”.“酥油”refers to butter extracted from Yak milk.The translation of“酥油”as“Tibetan Butter”can not only convey the name equivalent information in English culture to Foreign Diners,it can also tell the special diet culture of Tibetans in Khampa to foreign diners.

“酥油茶”is a kind of popular tea drink for Tibetans.The traditional method of making“酥油茶”is to place the Yak butter into the Yak butter bucket,add salt,then pour into the boiled tea.Now the Tibetan families in Khampa generally use electric machine to make“酥油茶”.“酥油茶”can be translated into different expressions of“Butter Tea”,“Buttered Tea”,“Butter Oil Tea”,“Tibetan Butter Tea”,“Yak Butter Tea”,“Tibetan Buttered Tea”.Above all,the literal translation of Tibetan culture-loaded words such as“Butter Tea”,“Buttered Tea”,“Butter Oil Tea”,and the combination of literal translation and translation strategy of addition,complementing the meaning of the culture-loaded words in the source language.Among“Tibetan Butter Tea”,“Yak Tea”,“Tibetan Buttered Tea”,the writer believes that“Tibetan Buttered Tea”can convey more accurately and clearly the name information and Tibetan cultural characteristics.

Translation Strategies for Culture-loaded Words on Dishes of“烤白菌”and“烤松茸”

There are many forests,grasslands in Plateau of Khampa,with favorable climatic conditions,which provide a good environment for the growth of dozens of edible wild fungi.They are best known for the“松茸”in Yajiang County and“白菌”in Shiqu County of Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture.(Lin,2012,p.37)“松茸”and“白菌”,rich in natural protein,amino acids and a variety of mineral elements,are very precious edible wild fungi.Delicious taste,rich in nutrition,“松茸”and“白菌”have very high medicinal and therapeutic effect.Because of their extremely high nutritional value,rare yield,“松茸”and“白菌”become the world’s rare fungi,known as the world treasures.There are many ways to cooking“松茸”and“白菌”:steamed,stewed,fried,grilled.The local Tibetan have their traditional distinctive way to cook“松茸”.Cooking methods:Clean the“松茸”,smear Tibetan Butter on the surface of the“松茸”,sprinkle some salt,place them on“Huozi”(ashes of Yaks’dung or wood)to grill slightly brown.“松茸”has long enjoyed a high reputation in the world and has its’corresponding English name.“松茸”can be translated as“Matsutake”“Tricholoma SP”,“Mushroom”“Tricholoma Matsutake”and“Pine Mushroom”.The writer believes that“Matsutake”can convey clearly,concisely and accurately the cultural meaning of“松茸”,this world treasure.The“Pine Mushroom”is also suitable,clear and concise,which can arouse the Foreign Diners’association with the shape and growing environment of“松茸”.TRICHOLOMA SP is a Tricholoma Mushroom,which only indicates that“松茸”belongs to a family of fungi,while the“Mushroom”will let foreign diners take the rare wild“松茸”as a common Mushroom,“TRICHOLOMA SP”and“Tricholoma matsutake”are technical terms used mainly in the medical profession,not suitable for translation of the name of the dish.Therefore,the delicious Tibetan dish“烤松茸”can be translated as“Grilled Matsutake with Tibetan Butter”or“Grilled Pine Mushroom with Tibetan Butter”.

There were two scientific names about“白菌”in Shiqu:according to the identification of Bi zhishu and other experts on fungi,Leucopaxillus Candidus,while Liu Fangxiu,a researcher at the Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences,thinks it is a strain of tricholoma,with two reasons for this:firstly,the morphology and ecological environment of“白菌”and Tricholoma Mongolicum are very similar;secondly,the“白菌”originated from North America and is far away from Shiqu,while Tricholoma Mongolicum is distributed almost all over the grassland in China,so“白菌”seems to have a closer relationship with tricholoma.(Ge&Liu,1995,p.29)The writer attempts to translate“白菌”into“Rare White Tricholoma”,which can tell foreign diners of the color and shape of“白菌”,at the same time convey its rare and precious edible cultural value.According to its cooking method,growing region,main ingredients and ingredients of“烤白菌”,the writer attempts to translate the rare delicacy into“Shiqu Grilled Rare Tricholoma with Tibetan Butter”.

Translation Strategies on Tibetan Traditional Snacks in Khampa

Translation Strategies on“酥油人參果”

“卓瑪”is commonly known as“人參果”— in Tibetan meaning“青梅日布”,which means the fruit of immortality,so people call it“人參果”.“人參果”is a kind of potentilla anserina,the Tibetan name“戳馬”,perennial root,growing in the Alpine region above 3,700 meters above sea level,which contains rich vitamins,magnesium,zinc,potassium,calcium elements.It has the functions of invigorating stomach and spleen,promoting body fluid to quench thirst,tonifying Qi and nourishing and promoting blood flow,which is a kind of natural,pollution-free and healthy food with high nutritional value.

There are different translation versions of culture loaded word“人參果”:“Fern root”,“Choma”,“Droma”.“Fern root”refers to the root and stem of the ferns which refers to a wide range of species.“Choma”and“Droma”are transliterations of“人參果”,“戳馬”,“卓瑪”in Tibetan.The cooking method of“人參果”:boil the cleaned“人參果”until the water is not completely dry,place the boiled Tibetan Butter in a plate,mix“人參果”in the boiled Tibetan Butter,add Zanba and sugar mixing evenly.Therefore,the writer thinks that the“酥油人參果”can be translated as“Boiled Choma（Droma）With Tibetan Butter,Zanba,Sugar”.By the combination of literal translation and transliteration,it not only conveys the cultural meaning of the culture-loaded word“人參果”,but also informs the diners of the cooking method,main ingredients and ingredients of this special dish,which can arouse the foreign diners’rich imagination of its taste.

Translation strategies on“酥油包子”

“酥油包子”:Mix Tibetan Butter,Zanba,brown sugar evenly to make the filling.Wrap the filling in the dough cover and make the“包子”.Steam them until ready to eat.“酥油包子”tastes sweet and delicious.The author attempts to translate“酥油包子”into“Bao Zi Stuffed with Tibetan Butter,Zanba,Brown Sugar”.Such a translation can not only inform foreign diners of the cooking method,shape,main ingredients,ingredients,and can arouse foreign diners’rich imagination to its taste.

Translation strategies on“酥油果子”

“酥油果子”also known as“藏式麻花”,is a must-have snack on tea table of Tibetan family in Khampa.Tibetan Butter and flour are main raw materials of making“酥油果子”.Mix Y Tibetan Butter in the process of kneading dough,make dough into fine stripes and other shapes,then place them into the hot oil and fry to golden yellow and place them into the plate,cooling them to be eaten.“酥油果子”is crisp and delicious,with sweet and salty flavors.The“酥油果子”is a kind of essential snacks for local Tibetans in New Year,the marriage days and other traditional Tibetan festivals.“酥油果子”can be translated into“Fried Dough Twists,Tibetan Style”.A literal translation of the“Tibetan twist”can convey to diners the cooking way,the ingredients,the shape and the flavor of it.

Translation strategies on“酥油酸奶”

Yogurt for local Tibetans in Khampa is mainly made of fermented Yak Milk.“酥油酸奶”is made of Yogurt mixed with boiled Tibetan Butter and sugar.“酥油酸奶”can be translated into“Tibetan Buttered Yogurt”.The translation conveys to diners the main ingredients and distinctive Tibetan culture of this delicious snack.

Tibetans in pastoral area of Khampa have the custom of making and eating“藏式巧克力”,which is made of Zanba,powder of“Choma”,brown sugar,Tibetan Butter and milk.“藏式巧克力”is sweet and delicious,fragrant overflowing.“ 藏式巧克力”can be translated literally as“Chocolate,Tibetan Style,”which retains the ethnic flavor of this delicious snack and tells diners of its delicious taste.

Translation Strategies on Yak Meat Dishes with Special Features

Yak Meat Dishes are a feature of Tibetan dishes in Khampa.The Yak Meat used in Tibetan dishes in Khampa is made mainly from local yaks.A favorite dish of local Tibetans“牛肉香腸”can be translated into“Yak Meat Sausage”,“腌牛舌”as“Salted Yak Tongue”.

“牛血腸”is a very special traditional Tibetan dish in Khampa.When Yaks are slaughtered,the local Tibetans make“牛血腸”.Clean the intestines and collect the blood into the container.Add minced Yak meat,Zanba,salt and minced wild mint into the blood.Mix them well and then place into the intestines.Tie the“牛血腸”with woolen thread or beef tendons thread,put the“牛血腸”in a pot to boil.Then,hang the raw“牛血腸”over the hearth in the kitchen.When dried,it is ready.Local Tibetans in some areas of Khampa hang boiled“牛血腸”over a cool place.When eating,they take some without heating but eat directly.Cold“牛血腸”taste with rich flavor.Steamed“牛血腸”taste soft,fresh and glutinous,baked crispy and fresh.“牛血腸”can be translated literally as“Bovine Blood Sausage”.

The local Tibetans in Khampa have the custom of making and eating“風(fēng)干牛肉”.When the yak is slaughtered in winter,cut off the fresh meat and divide them into two fingers wide and about 20 cm long strips,hanging the meat strips on the rope in a cool place to dry,removing moisture.In the spring season of the following year,dried beef is removed and eaten raw or baked.“風(fēng)干牛肉”is crispy and flavorful,with a long aftertaste.“風(fēng)干牛肉”can be translated as“Dried Yak Meat”.

Conclusion

The Tibetans in Khampa are wise in making full use of the unique natural gifts of materials in this region.With common condiments,simple cooking methods,they make local agricultural products,meat,poultry,all kinds of delicacies from mountains,wild herbs and so on into delicious dishes.Tibetan dishes in Khampa contain rich Tibetan culture,which reflects the simple philosophy of harmonious coexistence between man and nature and unity of man and nature.Transliteration,literal translation,free translation and annotation are mainly used in the translation of culture-loaded words of Tibetan dishes in Khampa.

Acknowledgments

Foundation Project:Project of Khampa Cultural Research Center of Sichuan Minzu College in 2020:“Translation of Tibetan Dishes in Khampa from the Perspective of Cultural Translation”(project number:KBFHB20013).