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宋韻:登峰造極的兩宋文明(六)

2021-08-04 13:02徐吉軍
文化交流 2021年6期
關鍵詞:舞蹈

徐吉軍

(續(xù)上期)

八是輝煌的文化成就

宋代在哲學、史學、文學、書畫藝術、音樂、舞蹈、戲曲以及科學技術等領域都達到了前所未有的高度,在各個領域都涌現(xiàn)了一批杰出的人物,在中國文化史上占有十分重要的地位。它以豐厚的底蘊、深邃的思想、恢宏的氣勢、絢麗的色彩,把中國歷史悠久的民族文化推向高峰,并給此后中國文化的發(fā)展帶來極其深遠而重大的影響。正如明人徐有貞所說的:“宋有天下三百載,視漢唐疆域之廣不及,而人才之盛過之?!蓖鯂S也說:“天水一朝人智之活動,與文化之多方面,前之漢、唐,后之元、明,勢所不逮也。”

文學是文化的重要組成部分。在宋代,中國文學繁榮昌盛,詩詞、散文、話本等都有突出的成就。鄭振鐸在《插圖本中國文學史》中論述中國“中世文學”時,充滿激情地寫道:“歐洲文學史上的中世紀,是一個黑暗的時代,但我們的中世紀,卻是那樣的輝煌絢爛的一個大時代,幾乎沒有一紀一年不是天朗氣清的‘佳日。”宋代無論是作家的人數(shù)、作品的數(shù)量,都明顯超過唐代。至于文學流派之活躍、文學社團活動之頻繁、文學生態(tài)結構之均衡、文學批評理論之興盛,都有不容忽視的上佳呈現(xiàn)。

詞作為一種可以演唱的文學形式,興起于唐代,經五代至宋,達到了全盛,成為宋代文學的代表。作家、作品數(shù)量巨大,唐圭璋《全宋詞》共收詞人1494家,詞21055首,涌現(xiàn)出柳永、張先、周邦彥、晏殊、歐陽修、蘇軾、黃庭堅、秦觀、李清照、朱淑真、辛棄疾、陸游、張孝祥、陳亮、朱敦儒、張元干等一大批藝術成就卓著的優(yōu)秀詞人。他們在詞壇開拓創(chuàng)新,內容豐富,形式活潑,格調清新,或慷慨悲壯,或清麗典雅;或曠達豪放,或凄婉沉郁;或激越奔放,或嫵媚纏綿,突破了傳統(tǒng)的觀念,廣泛而深刻地反映了當時社會各階層的生活和思想,具有鮮明的時代性、強烈的人民性和豐富多采的娛樂性。詞人們懷著熾熱的愛國激情,慷慨悲歌,寫下了大量豪邁奔放、氣勢磅礴的憂時愛國的作品,特別是在南宋詞壇,更是呈現(xiàn)出強烈的抗金氣氛和愛國主義精神。岳飛的《滿江紅·怒發(fā)沖冠》、辛棄疾的《破陣子·醉里挑燈看劍》等,幾百年來一直激勵著中華民族不屈不撓地英勇斗爭。后人對傳承了中國傳統(tǒng)文化載體、且在一定程度上代表了當時民族精神的宋詞推崇備至,周篤文先生在《宋詞》一書中說:“在三百余年的兩宋文壇上,最為成功,最有創(chuàng)造性,最蔚然成風氣,也最能表現(xiàn)人們真實感情生活的,就莫過于詞了。詞至宋代,真如嬌花放蕊、麗日中天,充滿了無窮的活力和光彩。”而自古以來所謂的“楚辭、漢賦、唐詩、宋詞、元曲”之說,更成為千古之定論。

詩歌經唐代極盛之后,到宋朝則別開生面,有了很大的發(fā)展。如從詩人和作品來說,可謂盛況空前。北京大學古文獻研究所《全宋詩》編纂委員會歷數(shù)年之艱辛,編成約4000萬字的《全宋詩》,洋洋灑灑50冊,收錄作者9000余人,約為《全唐詩》的4倍,卷數(shù)和字數(shù)約為《全唐詩》的5倍。如就個人的詩作數(shù)量來看,像陸游、楊萬里這樣的大詩人,各人所作的詩篇均在萬首左右,可謂前無古人。再就宋詩的內容而言,更加廣泛而深刻,表達技巧精細,思想縝密,更趨于散文化、議論化,形成了其獨特的風格。蘇軾、黃庭堅、梅堯臣、楊萬里、范成大、陸游等為宋代詩人的杰出代表,在中國詩壇上閃耀著光輝。其藝術價值并不遜色于唐詩,二者各領風騷數(shù)百年。錢鐘書先生評價說:“(唐詩與宋詩)不僅朝代之別,乃體格性分之殊?!薄疤圃姸嘁载S神情韻見長,宋詩多以筋骨思理見勝?!闭撬未娙说淖晕沂∮X,方能于唐詩之后獨樹一幟,自辟蹊徑,自開戶牖,以理入詩,產生了中國歷史上最早的哲理詩,給人以“柳暗花明又一村”的感覺,從而使中國古代的詩歌寶庫更加豐富多彩、絢麗多姿。

在古文運動中,宋人扮演了主要角色。后人所稱的唐宋八大家,除唐代的韓愈、柳宗元外,宋代占有六家,即:歐陽修、王安石、蘇洵、蘇軾、蘇轍、曾鞏。以歐陽修為代表的宋代散文家,倡導文風改革。他們在與駢文的斗爭中,一掃宋初浮靡空乏之弊,把散文創(chuàng)作推向一個新的高峰,使宋代古文的內容和技巧更加成熟,文章樸素自然,婉轉流暢,從而對后世的散文創(chuàng)作產生了巨大的影響。

宋代的話本小說,在延續(xù)唐代話本的的基礎上,比唐代話本內容更加豐富,讀者對象更加廣泛,出現(xiàn)了《三國志平話》《大宋宣和遺事》《大唐三藏取經詩話》《武王伐紂平話》等名作。從話本小說的內容方面來說,它生動地反映了廣大市民階層的文化生活和思想,擴大了小說反映生活的領域,標志著我國古代現(xiàn)實主義文學的成熟。從形式上說,它開辟了中國古代小說的新紀元,為元、明以后小說進入繁盛階段奠定了堅實的基礎,由此出現(xiàn)了《三國演義》《水滸傳》《西游記》《封神榜》等名作。

宋代是中國史學最繁榮的時期,在隋唐的基礎上有了進一步的發(fā)展。鄧廣銘先生說:“宋代史學的發(fā)展所達到的水平,在中國封建社會歷史時期內也是最高的?!逼渫怀鰳酥?,一是史官制度更為完善,史學名家輩出,史學體裁呈現(xiàn)出多樣化的特色。宋代史官制度的龐大組織和豐富內容,是前朝所不能及的。朝廷先后設置相關機構,形成了一整套史官修史制度。史家輩出,知名的有司馬光、歐陽修、范祖禹、劉恕、劉攽、李燾、李心傳、鄭樵、徐夢莘、袁樞、王應麟、熊克、陳傅良等。其時,“實事求是”觀念已經深深植根于史家的頭腦里,成為史家的共識,影響著他們的治史活動,其顯著標志是憂患意識、經世意識、史評意識表現(xiàn)得非常明顯。二是宋代史書體例趨于完備,體例上新意迭出,史學理論進一步發(fā)展和成熟。司馬光主編的《資治通鑒》,是我國第一部編年體通史,是借鑒歷史智慧的杰作。劉敞、歐陽修開創(chuàng)金石學,在史學領域中開辟了一個新的領域。朱熹所創(chuàng)綱目體,所著的《資治通鑒綱目》一書,為編年體體例的又一重大發(fā)展。袁樞《通鑒紀事本末》開創(chuàng)了史書紀事本末體的先河,對中國史學的發(fā)展產生了重要影響,是明清兩代史家廣為采用的史體。

作為史學分支的方志學,在宋代也得到了高度的發(fā)展。宋代方志上承史、漢之余緒,下為后世的方志編纂學打下了堅實的基礎,具有繼往開來的歷史地位和作用。張國淦先生在 《中國古方志考·敘例》中指出:“方志之書,至趙宋而體例始備。舉凡輿圖、疆域、山川、名勝、建置、職官、賦稅、物產、鄉(xiāng)里、風俗、人物、方伎、金石、藝文、災異,無不匯于一編”,而不像隋唐以前那樣“多分別單行,各自為書”,門類只限于“地圖、山川、風土、人物、物產數(shù)種”。修志成就也十分突出,如李宗諤等編《祥符州縣圖經》、樂史《太平寰宇記》、王存《元豐九域志》、歐陽忞《輿地廣記》、祝穆《方輿勝覽》、王象之《輿地紀勝》、宋敏求《長安志》、朱長文《吳郡圖經續(xù)記》、潛說友《咸淳臨安志》、范成大《吳郡志》等,都是著稱于世的名作。

宋代官私所藏典籍,達到中國中古史的頂峰。這一時期,目錄學繁榮,史目不僅數(shù)量上遠超前代,而且開創(chuàng)了當代史志目錄的先例,在中國古代目錄學史上處于極其重要的地位。尤袤《遂初堂書目》、陳振孫《直齋書錄解題》、晁公武《郡齋讀書志》,為宋代私家目錄的代表作。

宋代是中國繪畫史上的鼎盛時期,標志著我國中古時期繪畫高峰的出現(xiàn)。首先,從畫家的人數(shù)來看,宋代畫家多達千人左右,如《佩文齋書畫譜》載有986人,《古今圖書集成》“畫部·名流列傳”載有943人。而元末夏文彥《圖繪寶鑒》及其補遺、續(xù)補,則載有宋代畫家853人,就畫家人數(shù)來說,幾乎是唐五代總和的兩倍多(唐192人,五代110人),元代的四倍多(元代190人)。這些畫家遍及宋代社會的各個階層,上至帝王公侯,下至娼優(yōu)奴婢,旁及釋道,反映了宋代繪畫藝術的鼎盛。鄭振鐸先生在其主編的《宋人畫冊》一書前言中指出:“論述中國繪畫史的,必當以宋這個光榮的時代為中心。”其時,繪畫在內容上比唐代有了很大的發(fā)展,山水畫、人物畫、風俗畫、花鳥畫等都并盛于世,真可謂“群山競秀,萬壑爭流,法備而藝精”了。

宋代的書法藝術,雖不及唐代之繁盛,也遠遠遜色于同時期的文學和繪畫藝術,但就整體而言,“別有一番新的局面、新的意趣、新的成就”,開創(chuàng)了一代新風。它是繼魏晉以后書法藝術的第二次自覺和再認識。帖學盛行是宋代書法昌盛的一個重要方面,尚意之風為其鮮明的時代特征。其間書法名家輩出,而成就最高者為北宋四大家——蘇軾、黃庭堅、米芾和蔡襄。此外,宋徽宗趙佶獨樹一幟,亦堪稱道。

在音樂藝術方面,宋代體現(xiàn)出遠邁漢唐、自成一體的時代特征,教坊制度較唐代有了質的飛躍,發(fā)展中心由隋唐時期的宮廷內府和廟宇轉向兩宋時期的市井民間,由貴族轉向平民,由單純的禮儀性和娛樂性躋身于商品經濟舞臺,并呈現(xiàn)出勃興之勢。音樂雅俗兼?zhèn)?,甚至因俗變雅。其時,市民音樂勃興,新音樂形式層出不窮,成為引領時代文化潮流的先鋒。器樂合奏或獨奏,成為宋代文人享受文化生活的重要組成部分。而這種轉變,正是宋代音樂商業(yè)化、專業(yè)化、多樣化、世俗化等時代特征的真實寫照。

宋代是中國古代舞蹈史上繼魏晉南北朝之后的第二個偉大轉折。其隊舞、大曲、雅樂、民間舞蹈等都體現(xiàn)出人多、群舞的性質。舞蹈技藝已經達到了新的高度,舞蹈動態(tài)和舞式非常繁雜,令人眼花繚亂。以宮廷舞蹈為例,出現(xiàn)了包括手、袖、眼神、身段、步態(tài)和舞蹈隊形等九類六十三項動態(tài)舞式。史桂花《宋代舞蹈商業(yè)化發(fā)展探究》一文認為,宋代不僅“隊舞”高度程式化、規(guī)范化,帶來舞蹈藝術的高度成熟,而且這個時期的舞蹈以商業(yè)化來規(guī)范自身的發(fā)展。這種現(xiàn)象使得宮廷舞蹈越出了宮墻流入民間,與民間舞蹈相互吸收,取長補短,進一步融合,使統(tǒng)治階級的審美趣味擺脫了貴族化傾向,向民間靠攏,使宋代舞蹈民間色彩更加濃烈,并呈現(xiàn)“雅俗通融”“雅俗共賞”的可喜局面。它開辟我國舞蹈娛樂的大眾化、商業(yè)化以及職業(yè)化之先河,為后來元明清戲曲舞蹈的發(fā)展奠定了堅實的基礎。

與音樂、歌舞一樣,宋代雜技也是中國雜技史上一個重要的階段,具有獨特的地位。它在唐代吞刀吐水、繩上舞蹈、跳弄車輪、盤舞等節(jié)目基礎上進一步發(fā)展,開始從宮廷重新回歸民間,特別是市民文藝的興起,更給雜技藝術注入了巨大的力量,從而帶來了一次新的變革。表演驚險奇特,雜技節(jié)目有上竿、打筋頭、踏蹺、舞劍、踢磬、弄花鼓捶、踢墨筆、弄球子、教蟲蟻及魚、弄熊、燒煙火、放爆仗、火戲兒、水戲兒、壁上睡等雜手伎四五十種之多,滿足了百姓的精神需要。

宋代戲劇十分興盛,雜劇、傀儡戲、皮影戲以及與這些戲劇有關的諸宮調、唱賺、雜扮、小說、講唱等歌舞百戲,與南戲競演爭勝,共同構成宋代戲劇的繁盛局面。其時的戲曲藝術,作為一種熔歌舞、講唱、文學諸多因素于一爐的綜合性藝術,體現(xiàn)出宋代戲曲音樂的最高成就,也成為中國近世戲曲文化的主流。這一時期,也是中國戲劇的生成期,我國最早成熟的戲曲“溫州雜劇”,即于南宋之初或稍早前首先誕生于浙江溫州,因唱南曲又名“南曲戲文”,簡稱“南戲”。其時,溫州地區(qū)的“九山書會”根據(jù)《狀元張協(xié)傳》改編而成的《張協(xié)狀元》,已經具有完整的故事情節(jié)、曲折起伏的戲劇矛盾、齊全的角色行當以及豐富的表演形式、較完整的表演結構等,這都是以前所無法比擬的,其專業(yè)性得到了大大的增強。因此,它標志著中國戲曲的真正形成。

(作者系浙江省社科院歷史所所長。)

Cultural Splendor of the Song Dynasty (Ⅵ)

By Xu Jijun

“In its 300 years of history, Song was not as expansive as Han and Tang dynasties in territory, but it cultivated more talents than them,” observed Xu Youzhen (1407-1472), a Ming (1368-1644) statesman and poet. “In terms of talents and in various respects of culture, the Song dynasty is much superior to Han, Tang dynasties that went before it, and the Yuan and Ming dynasties that came after,” Wang Guowei (1877-1927), a preeminent modern historian and scholar, agreed with the assessment.

Whether in literature, historiography, painting, calligraphy, music, dance, drama or in philosophy, science and technology, and myriad other fields, Song dynasty (960-1279) reached unprecedented heights, each area boasting quite a number of outstanding figures, and bringing far-reaching and significant influence to the development of Chinese culture.

“For the Europeans,” wrote Zheng Zhenduo (1898-1958), a renowned scholar on Chinese literature, in his book An Illustrated History of Chinese History, “the Middle Ages were Dark Ages, but for the Chinese, the Middle Ages were an era of splendor.” In fact, both the number of writers and the number of literary works in the Song period far exceeded those of Tang (618-907), one of the greatest dynasties throughout Chinese history. Literary schools proliferated, literary societies mushroomed, and literary criticisms and theories thrived.

First sung by ordinary folks, Ci or Ci poetry, also known as lyric poetry or lyric songs, is a genre of Chinese verse with unequal length that was originally set to music. Following the classical Chinese poetry, Ci poetry was developed in the Tang dynasty. But it wasnt until the Song dynasty that it became the predominant literary form. In Quansongci (Complete Song Ci Poems), a total of 1,494 Ci poets and 21,055 Ci poems were documented. These Ci poems were not only innovative in form, but rich in content and fresh in style. During this period, two distinct and contrasting styles of Ci poetry developed, the Wanyue School (delicate restraint) and the Haofang School (heroic abandon). Of the Wanyue School, Liu Yong (987-1053), Yan Shu (991-1055), Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) and Li Qingzhao (1084-1155), among others, are some of the best-known poets, while Xin Qiji (1140-1207), Lu You (1125-1210) and Yue Fei (1103-1142) are among the highly acclaimed Haofang poets. Now, when Ci poetry is spoken of, the appellation “Song Ci” is commonly used, which testifies to its peak development in the Song dynasty.

On the other hand, poetry in general, after reaching the zenith in the Tang dynasty, still witnessed significant progress in Song. With 72 volumes, the Quansongshi (Complete Song Poems), complied by the Center for Ancient Chinese Classics and Archives of Peking University over a dozen years, has recorded over 9,000 poets, about four times of the number of poets recorded in Quantangshi (Complete Tang Poems), and the total word count stands at 40 million, 12 times of that of Quantangshi. Indeed, poets such as Lu You and Yang Wanli (1127-1206) left behind more than 10,000 poems, which is unprecedented. In terms of genres, literary styles and artistic value, for many, it is hard to choose between Song poems, considered more philosophical, and Tang poems.

Not only in poetry, Song literati also played an important part in the Classical Prose Movement, a movement in the late Tang and Song that called for clarity and precision in prose writing rather than following the rigid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular since the Han dynasty. Of the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song who were the principal proponents of the movement, six were from the Song dynasty, namely Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi (1021-1086), Su Xun (1009-1066), Su Shi (1037-1101), Su Zhe (1039-1112) and Zeng Gong (1019-1083). And building on the Tang chuanqi, fictional short stories in classical Chinese, authors during the Song developed huaben, stories or novellas written in the vernacular language, which laid a solid foundation for the flourishing of such classics as The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the Outlaws of the Marsh, and the Journey to the West in the Yuan (1271-1368) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties.

“Songs historiographical operation is among the most developed of the Chinese feudal societies,” remarked Deng Guangming (1907-1998), a leading Chinese historian on the Song dynasty. One of the major features is a more comprehensive official historiographical system. A complete set of official agencies was established and a large number of prominent historians, including Sima Guang (1019-1086) and Ouyang Xiu, emerged. They were innovative not only in theories—recording history in as objective a manner as possible became the consensus among the Song historians, but also in practice. One of the most popular books today, Zizhi Tongjian (or Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance), compiled by Sima Guang, was the first general history reference book written in a chronological order. Studies of local history or local gazetteers advanced significantly as well in Song, when an exhaustive system of rules and guidelines took shape, which encompassed an encyclopedic range of subject matters and were followed by later dynasties.

The Song dynasty excelled in other areas, too. It marked the golden age of Chinese painting. Various records put the number of “famous Song painters” at around 1,000, who came from all walks of life: emperors and princes, prostitutes and servants, Buddhist and Taoist monks, and many others. Different types of paintings, including landscape painting, figure painting, genre painting, flower and bird painting, were all popular, each as celebrated as another. Although calligraphy in Song pales in comparison to its literature and painting, it is still believed to “have carved a niche of its own, developed a charm of its own and attained some accomplishments of its own. ” Four masters of calligraphy of the Song dynasty, namely Su Shi, Huang Tingjian (1045-1105), Mi Fu (1051-1107), Cai Xiang (1012-1067) and Zhao Ji (1082-1135), Emperor Huizong of Song, are among the most acclaimed Chinese calligraphers of all time.

In music, dancing, opera and even acrobatics, unique achievements have been made during the Song dynasty. The focus of music and dancing shifted from the imperial court and temples to the general public. It greatly facilitated the development of not only folk music and folk dancing, but also opera, which relied heavily on music and dancing. Indeed, Nanxi (literally “southern theater”), the earliest form of Chinese opera, was born in Zhejiangs Wenzhou area during the early Southern Song period.

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