吳義娟 李慶淑 秦賢 謝偉峰 曲彥
[摘要] 腸桿菌科細(xì)菌是醫(yī)院和社區(qū)的常見病原體,其對碳青霉烯類抗生素產(chǎn)生耐藥后會(huì)產(chǎn)生嚴(yán)重的后果。本文主要對近年來耐碳青霉烯類腸桿菌主動(dòng)篩查的相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行歸納總結(jié),以期為其未來的防控工作提供參考。
[關(guān)鍵詞] 耐碳青霉烯類腸桿菌科;抗藥性,微生物;感染控制;綜述
[中圖分類號] R378.2;R183
[文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)志碼] A
[文章編號] 2096-5532(2021)05-0787-04
doi:10.11712/jms.2096-5532.2021.57.160
[開放科學(xué)(資源服務(wù))標(biāo)識碼(OSID)]
[網(wǎng)絡(luò)出版] https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/37.1517.r.20210826.1200.009.html;2021-08-27 13:09:51
ADVANCES IN ACTIVE SCREENING OF CARBAPENEM-RESISTANT ENTEROBACTERIACEAE BACTERIA
WU Yijuan, LI Qingshu, QIN Xian, XIE Weifeng, QU Yan
(Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China)
[ABSTRACT] Enterobacteriaceae bacteria are common pathogens in both hospital and community, and their resistance to carbapenem antibiotics will cause severe consequences. This paper mainly summarizes the relevant literature on active screening of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in recent years, in order to provide a reference for its control and prevention in the future.
[KEY WORDS] carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae; drug resistance, microbial; infection control; review
耐碳青霉烯類腸桿菌(carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae,CRE)是一類對碳青霉烯類抗菌藥物耐藥的病原體[1]。感染CRE的病人病死率明顯高于非CRE感染者,且治療成本更高[2]。腸桿菌科細(xì)菌表型篩選指南中指出,充分篩查CRE對病人至關(guān)重要,不僅有助于正確選擇抗生素,還有助于選擇合適的預(yù)防措施[3]。就當(dāng)前研究現(xiàn)狀而言,越來越多醫(yī)學(xué)工作者對CRE主動(dòng)篩查的相關(guān)研究產(chǎn)生了極大的興趣,本文就CRE主動(dòng)篩查的相關(guān)進(jìn)展進(jìn)行闡述。
1 CRE主動(dòng)篩查的必要性
對于多重耐藥革蘭陰性病原體引起的感染性疾病,臨床上偏向于運(yùn)用碳青霉烯類抗生素[4]。然而,近年來許多臨床醫(yī)生擔(dān)心的問題——CRE的檢出率越來越高,已成為臨床治療的一大難題[5]。目前,世界大部分地區(qū)都發(fā)現(xiàn)了CRE,尤其在亞洲和南歐地區(qū)的患病率非常高[6]。據(jù)美國疾病預(yù)防控制中心報(bào)告,2001—2011年CRE的檢出率從1%增加至4%[7]。我國2017—2018年細(xì)菌耐藥監(jiān)測報(bào)告顯示,碳青霉烯類藥物較前有更高的耐藥率,其中肺炎克雷伯桿菌的耐藥率全國平均為10.1%,較2017年上升了1.1%[8]。另有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),CRE感染的病死率高達(dá)50%,且由于其治療方案少、費(fèi)用高,具有較高的潛在傳播性,這會(huì)給病人、醫(yī)院甚至社會(huì)帶來極大的危害[9]。DICKSTEIND等[10]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),住院病人存在CRE定植是發(fā)生該菌感染的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素。歐洲疾病預(yù)防控制中心認(rèn)為,對CRE進(jìn)行主動(dòng)篩查并實(shí)施預(yù)防措施,不僅可以有效預(yù)防控制CRE的感染與傳播,也能減少并發(fā)癥、降低病死率[3,11]。
2 CRE主動(dòng)篩查的對象及方法
2.1 篩查對象
主動(dòng)篩查是控制CRE感染的基石,我們需要將重點(diǎn)放在CRE感染風(fēng)險(xiǎn)較高和易向其他高危人群傳播的病人身上[12]。從臨床角度來看, 所有可能有定植危險(xiǎn)因素的病人應(yīng)在入院時(shí)進(jìn)行篩查,然后在住院期間每周進(jìn)行1次篩查。嚴(yán)重免疫抑制、病情危重的病人應(yīng)首先被納入篩查計(jì)劃??紤]到長期護(hù)理場所可能廣泛傳播CRE [13-14],建議所有入住的病人均進(jìn)行篩查。另外有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),與無癥狀攜帶者接觸的病人會(huì)感染這些菌株并成為傳播的第二來源,基于目前成本效益的考慮,不建議對CRE感染病人的家屬及相關(guān)的醫(yī)務(wù)人員進(jìn)行主動(dòng)篩查[15]。
2.2 CRE主動(dòng)篩查的方法及頻率
采集病人篩查標(biāo)本后需要立即送入檢驗(yàn)科進(jìn)行檢測,目前檢測CRE的方法有很多,主要有Carba NP試驗(yàn)、改良的Hodge試驗(yàn)、改良的碳青霉烯滅活試驗(yàn)、免疫金標(biāo)準(zhǔn)試驗(yàn)、酶抑制劑增強(qiáng)試驗(yàn)和分子生物學(xué)方法等[16-19]。
對于CRE定植/感染高危的病區(qū),病人均應(yīng)在住院后進(jìn)行主動(dòng)篩查,至少連續(xù)2次肛周拭子篩查CRE陰性(間隔最少1周)才可判定無CRE定植并停止篩查。對于入院篩查陽性的病人,由于CRE定植時(shí)間為3~24個(gè)月不等[20],對住院時(shí)間低于1個(gè)月的病人應(yīng)一直隔離至出院,不必再次進(jìn)行篩查。對住院時(shí)間超過1個(gè)月的病人應(yīng)1個(gè)月篩查1次,至篩查結(jié)果為陰性,可考慮停止隔離。此外,也有觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為對入院篩查陰性的病人在條件許可的情況下,應(yīng)綜合采集多部位標(biāo)本和增加篩查頻率,宜每周或每兩周進(jìn)行1次篩查,甚至每周可以篩查2次,以便盡早發(fā)現(xiàn)CRE定植/感染并采取相應(yīng)措施[21]。
3 預(yù)防CRE感染的措施
KARAMPATAKIS等[22]對住院病人進(jìn)行主動(dòng)監(jiān)測并實(shí)施常規(guī)感染控制措施,結(jié)果表明,耐碳青霉烯類革蘭陰性菌患病率及定植率明顯降低,其中耐碳青霉烯肺炎克雷伯菌從每1 000個(gè)病床日19.6%的感染率下降至8.1%,說明積極監(jiān)測、加強(qiáng)預(yù)防措施能夠降低流行地區(qū)CRE的感染率。
3.1 接觸預(yù)防隔離
耐藥腸桿菌科細(xì)菌在人體內(nèi)定植或感染可以持續(xù)存在數(shù)月,特別是伴有嚴(yán)重基礎(chǔ)疾病、侵入性器械診療和反復(fù)使用抗菌藥物的病人[23]。未行隔離措施的情況下,對首次確定CRE攜帶的病人在3個(gè)月內(nèi)進(jìn)行篩選時(shí),仍有35%的檢測陽性率[22]。長期護(hù)理醫(yī)院中CRE既往攜帶者在最近1次陽性培養(yǎng)后至少90 d再次進(jìn)行培養(yǎng)時(shí),其檢測陽性率為30%。最初直腸拭子培養(yǎng)陽性,即使經(jīng)過2次或更多次陰性篩選培養(yǎng),仍有15%左右的病人CRE檢測陽性[24]。BEN等[25]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),接觸預(yù)防隔離措施使耐碳青霉烯類肺炎克雷伯菌的臨床感染率下降了4.7%,能夠有效降低該菌定植或感染的院內(nèi)傳播率。
3.2 環(huán)境表面凈化
嚴(yán)格遵循清潔和去污標(biāo)準(zhǔn),不需要增加清潔頻率或使用特殊類型的消毒劑就可以從環(huán)境中消除CRE,并且表面消毒可有效抵抗具有多重耐藥性的革蘭陰性菌[26]。腸桿菌科細(xì)菌的環(huán)境生存時(shí)間短,因而與環(huán)境傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的相關(guān)性較低[27]。最近的一項(xiàng)研究結(jié)果顯示,在定植或感染了CRE的病人房間中,經(jīng)常觸摸的表面僅8.4%被污染,其中最常見的CRE培養(yǎng)陽性表面是馬桶以及馬桶周圍的地板[28]。當(dāng)用CRE、特別是大腸桿菌接種表面時(shí),發(fā)現(xiàn)其存活率低(24 h<15%,48 h<5%,72 h無存活)。另一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在法國療養(yǎng)院的1 160個(gè)環(huán)境表面中,只有0.8%的病人感染或定植產(chǎn)超廣譜β-內(nèi)酰胺酶的腸桿菌[29]。CRE培養(yǎng)陽性病人所居住的房間每天至少清潔和消毒1次,并盡可能使用專用的單人或一次性設(shè)備。該類病人出院或轉(zhuǎn)院后,應(yīng)對房間及使用的物品進(jìn)行徹底清潔和消毒,包括窗簾和床墊等。
3.3 控制使用有創(chuàng)設(shè)備
像導(dǎo)尿管、血管導(dǎo)管、氣管導(dǎo)管等裝置,通過提供病原體黏附表面和促進(jìn)生物膜的形成導(dǎo)致感染進(jìn)一步發(fā)展[30],CRE是設(shè)備相關(guān)感染的原因之一,尤其是與導(dǎo)管相關(guān)的尿路感染。最近,在南非暴發(fā)的產(chǎn)NDM-1腸桿菌科感染疾病中,置入導(dǎo)尿管或中心靜脈導(dǎo)管的時(shí)間每增加1 d,分別會(huì)增加7%或8%的該菌感染率[31]。因此,對于必須行有創(chuàng)設(shè)備治療的病人,必須嚴(yán)格遵循無菌原則并盡快移除導(dǎo)管是至關(guān)重要的[32]。
3.4 合理應(yīng)用抗菌藥物
第三代頭孢菌素類、氨曲南等的大量使用促進(jìn)了CRE的產(chǎn)生[33]。隨著臨床對抗菌藥物的需求增多及廣泛使用,CRE也日益增多,尤其是肺炎克雷伯桿菌和鮑曼不動(dòng)桿菌,是臨床醫(yī)生面臨的又一挑戰(zhàn)。一項(xiàng)研究納入了美國兩家實(shí)施綜合抗菌藥物管理計(jì)劃的重癥監(jiān)護(hù)室(ICU),發(fā)現(xiàn)多重耐藥革蘭陰性桿菌(包括銅綠假單胞菌、鮑曼不動(dòng)桿菌及產(chǎn)ESBL的腸桿菌)引起院內(nèi)感染率從37.4%降至8.5%[34]。澳大利亞墨爾本的一項(xiàng)研究顯示,與實(shí)施抗菌藥物管理計(jì)劃前的記錄比較,銅綠假單胞菌對亞胺培南的敏感性顯著增加[35]。因而,為了實(shí)現(xiàn)各種抗菌藥物的合理使用,需要嚴(yán)格掌握藥物相關(guān)的臨床適應(yīng)證,并規(guī)范其在病兒及特殊人群如孕婦、重要臟器功能不全病人中的應(yīng)用。
4 CRE定植/感染及去定植的效果
4.1 CRE定植與臨床感染的關(guān)系
CRE定植發(fā)生在感染之前,因而當(dāng)CRE檢測陽性時(shí),首先需要區(qū)分定植與感染。在排除病人送檢標(biāo)本污染的情況下,培養(yǎng)出CRE但無相關(guān)感染的臨床表現(xiàn)時(shí)診斷為CRE定植。JESSICA等[36]收集有關(guān)CRE定植病人發(fā)展為臨床感染的文獻(xiàn)資料,納入該研究病例累計(jì)感染率為16.5%,CRE的定植/感染延長了病人住院時(shí)間,總病死率約10%,其中由定植發(fā)展為感染的病人病死率更高(30%~75%)。
4.2 ICU病人CRE定植/感染的高危因素
ICU院內(nèi)感染率明顯高于其他普通病房[37]。韓國的一項(xiàng)研究顯示,分離出多重耐藥菌比未分離出細(xì)菌的病人發(fā)生CRE定植的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高5倍左右,且易發(fā)生交叉感染;使用頭孢菌素類的抗生素和碳青霉烯類抗生素≥15 d,CRE的定植風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分別增加3.84倍和2.67倍[38]。另外有研究顯示,長期停留ICU也是發(fā)生CRE感染的高危因素[39],其原因包括住院時(shí)間長、感染部位不同、病人一般健康狀況較差、伴隨疾病多、處于相對免疫抑制狀態(tài)等[40]。ICU病人留置導(dǎo)管的頻率很高,為微生物侵入人體提供了途徑,在使用和維護(hù)導(dǎo)管的過程中,醫(yī)護(hù)人員需要頻繁接觸病人,易使病人受到院內(nèi)病原體的定植和感染,此外,用于維護(hù)這些裝置的設(shè)備可能成為病原體的儲(chǔ)存庫,導(dǎo)致其平行傳播[41]。
4.3 對CRE定植病人進(jìn)行去定植的效果評估
CRE定植不僅能夠延長病人的總住院時(shí)間,還能夠增加CRE感染率甚至病死率,對CRE定植的病人進(jìn)行去定植能否改善病情及預(yù)后成為了新的研究方向。MACHUCA等[42]進(jìn)行的一項(xiàng)CRE去定植治療的隨機(jī)對照試驗(yàn)表明,進(jìn)行CRE去定植治療的病人死亡率(18%)和全身感染率(15%)明顯低于未接受去定植治療的病人。另一類似的研究也顯示,去定植治療能降低CRE定植病人的全身感染率和病死率[38]。目前對于CRE去定植的相關(guān)研究較少,還需要繼續(xù)探索。
5 小結(jié)與展望
碳青霉烯類抗生素是否產(chǎn)生耐藥性與病人住院時(shí)間長短有關(guān),對住院尤其是ICU病人進(jìn)行CRE主動(dòng)篩查將為全球關(guān)于抗菌藥物耐藥性的估計(jì)提供數(shù)據(jù),并有助于預(yù)防、診治CRE定植與感染。另外,存在CRE定植的病人發(fā)生該菌感染的總體風(fēng)險(xiǎn)尚不明確。因此,對于CRE的主動(dòng)篩查、預(yù)防措施、定植與臨床感染的關(guān)系等仍需要進(jìn)一步的探索和研究,使得主動(dòng)篩查CRE更具有臨床意義。
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