Zhao Yang

【Abstract】 The focus of this research is the motivation for participating in Scottish Cèilidh dancing in Edinburgh. The diversity of participants, who come from a broad spectrum of different backgrounds, is related to Cèilidh as a type of social dance where the enthusiasm of the dancers and the strategies of the dance teachers draw new participants.The research used qualitative methods, including four individual interviews,two focus groups, ten observations, and fifteen online questionnaires and fifty-three printed questionnaires.Data were analysed based on interview transcription, fieldnotes, and questionnaires. The findings from this research demonstrate that reasons for participation include social networks, fun, fitness, Scottish culture,flexible dance forms, live Scottish music, and the perception that the dancing is ‘easy to do’.

【Keywords】 Cèilidh dancing, participation, motivation, social contact

Introduction

The question of how to encourage public participation in dance in a community setting is an issue for some social dances and folk dances, such as Chinese folk dances,which are in decline and are no longer popular among young people. In 2018, after carrying out research on Scottish country dance in Lyon and Edinburgh, I graduated with a Master’s in Dance Knowledge, Practice and Heritage (Choreomundus) in four countries in Europe.①Choreomundus — International Master in Dance Knowledge，Practice，and Heritage.Two-year joint master’s（ 24 months）：Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet，Trondheim，Norway；Université Clermont Auvergne，Clermont-Ferrand, France；Szegedi Tudomanyegyetem，Szeged，Hungary；and University of Roehampton，London，United Kingdom.My dance background in China was in Chinese dance and thus, my position as a Chinese dancer and a Cèilidh dancer affects my approach to and interpretation of my research on Scottish country dance.

In China, folk dances are learnt by watching or attending dances and/or related events, especially in minority ethnic areas where people speak their own language instead of the national official language,Mandarin. However, the folk dances I studied in studios and at university are different from social folk dancing in daily life. Chinese national folk dance is now considered as a performance art, which is managed and choreographed for highly skilled professionals, rather than being something that ordinary people enjoy at social functions. National folk dance adapted continually to the changes in the times, showing contemporary characteristics and influences and expressing current sentiments and ideologies.①LIU X，KO Y C. Analysis of the Influence of Geographical Environment on Chinese Ethnic Folk Dance：Taking the Development of Dance Curriculum in Huaihua No. 1 Middle School as an Example［J］. Journal of Environmental and Public Health，2022.Some national folk dance traditions have been preserved and developed, while others have evolved to reflect the changing times. Thus, national folk dance has been developed and the dances have been presented differently in different periods. A researcher who gives more details about this is Wilcox, an American scholar who can speak professional Chinese fluently. Wilcox notes that Chinese classical dance and Chinese folk dance are two subcategories of Chinese dance that researchers and practitioners of Chinese dance have generally recognised since the 1950s and Chinese folk dances have combined Han Chinese and minority forms (e.g. Uyghur, Mongolian,Korean, Tibetan and Dai)②WILCOX E. Introduction to“Revolutionary Bodies：Chinese Dance and the Socialist Legacy”［M］. Okaland：University of California Press，2018..

While in Beijing, I was involved in a dance group for Chinese Tibetan dance, where I observed a contrast between the dance practice of ordinary Tibetans who were university students in Beijing, who commonly participated in traditional Tibetan dance, and professional dancers(regardless of ethnicity) who practised folk dance at most dance academies and at many theatrical events in Beijing,where dances were staged and often choreographed by professionals. My interest in this contrast underpins my research. It is my view that dance education should not be limited to a formal school-based curriculum, but should be broader and more holistic, where students would dance and be taught as human beings, rather than aiming solely at producing a performance piece, especially in folk dance. It is my belief that preserving traditional cultural heritages and engaging larger communities with dance will increase crosscultural communication and provide a shared pleasure in social dance, as can be observed with Cèilidh today.

Indeed, Scottish Cèilidh dance continues to appeal to people of all ages and cultural backgrounds. Compared to Scottish country dancing and Highland dance, Scottish Cèilidh is an informal and fairly unstandardised dance.It is a social dance and is normally danced in groups or by couples. I became interested in Scottish Cèilidh after I joined the Edinburgh University New Scotland Country Dance Society in September 2015. From my personal observation, most practitioners of Scottish dancing appeared to be ordinary members of the general public,both Scottish and international, although there were some dance professionals mixed in with the amateurs.

Scottish Cèilidh is an example of a prospering cultural,social and community dance form, with dancers who are not exclusively from Scotland but also come from England and from many non-English speaking countries.Scottish Cèilidh is a social gathering that involves dancing and music. It is a lively feature of many events, such as weddings and summer camps, which is not often the case for many other genres of dance. It is therefore important to explore the reasons why people engage in Scottish Cèilidh dancing, not only for the future development of Cèilidh itself, but also because these reasons may be relevant to other contexts and provide insights into how to encourage more people to enjoy dancing. The research therefore aims to shed new light on the general public’s participation in Cèilidh dancing and it includes consideration of teachers’influence on motivation. This study investigates why dancers are motivated and how they are motivated to do Cèilidh dancing. Thus, callers in Scottish Cèilidh dancing also need to be mentioned③A cèilidh usually involves a person called the “caller” who explains a sequence of dance moves to a dancers and instructs the dancers to dance along with （often） live music.. Cèilidh callers are the people who give guidance about dancing during Cèilidhs.Shoupe says that in Scottish Cèilidh dances, dancers can be reminded by verbal cues about movements or the next steps①SHOUPE C A. Scottish Social Dancing and the Formation of Community［J］.Western Folklore，2001，60（2/3）：125—148.. It has become common for callers to also be dance band members.

Fig. 1 Duncan Miller, Cèilidh, A Scottish Wedding, 2017, in Glasgow② MILLER D. Cèilidh，A Scottish Wedding in Glasgow［EB/OL］. （2017—08—12）［2022—06—01］. https://www.flickr.com/photos/dcm_flickr_pics/36483987206/in/dateposted/.

Fig. 2 Duncan Miller, Cèilidh, A Scottish Wedding, 2017, in Glasgow③ MILLER D. Cèilidh，A Scottish Wedding in Glasgow［EB/OL］. （2017—08—12）［2022—06—01］. https://www.flickr.com/photos/dcm_flickr_pics/35695363534/in/photostream/.

First, previous literature will be reviewed; second,the research methodology and questions will be explained;third, results will be discussed; and lastly, conclusions will be proposed.

Literature Review

Ewart and Ewart describe Cèilidh as ‘a(chǎn) dance which includes popular Scottish traditional dances and some old-time dances; a modern waltz or a quickstep can even find their way into the programme.’④EWART D，EWART M. Scottish Cèilidh Dancing［M］. Edinburgh：Mainstream，1996：8.Historically,Scottish Cèilidh dancing provided social entertainment in rural areas⑤SHEPHERD R. Let’s Have a Cèilidh：The Essential Guide to Scottish Dancing［M］. Edinburgh：Canongate Books Limited，1992.. According to Morrison, Cèilidh is a Scottish country dance that is a product of Scottish identity, which tried to differentiate itself from England⑥MORRISON C. Culture at the Core：Invented Traditions and Imagined Communities. Part I：Identity Formation［J］. International Review of Scottish Studies，2003，28：3—21.. In 1923, the Royal Scottish Country Dance Society (RSCDS) was established by Jean Milligan. Morrison describes the evolution of four forms of Scottish traditional dance (up to the 20th century): Scottish country dance, which was a social dance prevalent in urbanised upper-class regions;Cèilidh dance, which was more of a rural and lowerclass social dance; Scottish step-dance, which is related to tap dancing, and Highland dance, which has some movements similar to ballet but has different steps, such as hopping and jumping.⑦MORRISON C. Culture at the Core：Invented Traditions and Imagined Communities. Part I：Identity Formation［J］. International Review of Scottish Studies，2003，28：3—21.Morrison argues that Scottish Cèilidh dancing has the same roots as country dance, but with almost the opposite purpose, as Cèilidh dance is more rural and lower-class than country dance.

In the mid-1970s, Scottish Cèilidh dance became informal and a ‘new’ tradition was born, based on Scottish country dance. Ewart and Ewart (1996) state that the popularity of Scottish Cèilidh dancing is demonstrated by the large number of practitioners⑧EWART D，EWART M. Scottish Cèilidh Dancing［M］. Edinburgh：Mainstream，1996.. All age groups are involved, and it plays a meaningful part in community life, even in small villages. They also state that young people often turn away from disco, which they had formerly seen as trendy, when they find that Cèilidh dancing is fun and it becomes part of their life.Meanwhile, ‘“mature movers” are attracted by the niceand-easy appeal of this form of dance, as well as by its social aspects.’①EWART D，EWART M. Scottish Cèilidh Dancing［M］. Edinburgh：Mainstream，1996：7..

Some scholars, such as Dewhurst, Nelson et al.(2014) suggest that participation in Scottish country dancing is beneficial to health, including functional ability in older women②DEWHURST S，NELSON N，DOUGALL P K，et al. Scottish Country Dance：Benefits to Functional Aability in Older Women［J］.Journal of Aging and Physical Activity，2014，22（1）：146—153., and Bremer (2007) mentions that Scottish country dancing provides people with excellent aerobic exercise③BREMER，Z. Dance as a form of exercise［J］. British Journal of General Practice，2007，57（535）：166.. However, there has been very little indepth research regarding the huge popularity of Scottish dancing amongst the general public.

Research Questions and Methodology

According to Smith and Pocknell (2007), dance is a cultural product that relates to cultural traditions and is generally researched using methods informed by interpretivism, an approach that I follow here④SMITH F，POCKNELL L. A Practical Guide to Teaching Dance［M］. Leeds：Coachwise Business Solutions，2007.. Unlike positivist approaches, which claim to be objective,interpretivism looks for meanings that are situated in cultural and historical ‘life-worlds’⑤CROTTY M J. The Foundations of Social Research：Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process［M］. London：SAGE，1998：67.. In order to discover the reasons why members of the general public, without limitations of age, gender or culture, enjoy Scottish Cèilidh dancing in Edinburgh, my study explores dancers’ views of their experience and also investigates how Cèilidh teachers/callers motivate people to participate. The research questions are:

(1) Why do people of diverse ages, genders,and cultural backgrounds take part in Scottish Cèilidh dancing in Edinburgh?

(2) What positive experiences of Scottish Cèilidhs do the participants have?

(3) How do the dance callers/teachers motivate Scottish Cèilidh dancers/students?

According to Punch and Oancea (2014) and Robson and McCartan (2016), qualitative approaches investigate participants’ perceptions in depth and facilitate enriched findings, while quantitative methods use statistical and positivistic ways to measure participants’ responses⑥⑦PUNCH K F，OANCEA A E. Introduction to Research Methods in Education［M］. 2nd ed. London：SAGE，2014..This study explores participants’ engagement in Scottish Cèilidh dancing, including social, psychological, and cultural aspects such as motivation, enjoyment, and teaching strategies.

It is worth defining the concept of intrinsic motivation, as it will be a key concept in this study.

‘In healthy individual development, people move in the direction of greater autonomy. This entails internalizing and integrating external regulations over behavior, and learning to effectively manage drives and emotions. Additionally, it means maintaining intrinsic motivation and interest, which are vital to assimilating new ideas and experiences.When people are more autonomous, they exhibit greater engagement, vitality, and creativity in their life activities, relationships, and life projects’.⑧DECI E L，RYAN R M. Motivation，Personality，and Development within Embedded Social Contexts：An Overview of Self-Determination Theory［M］//RYAN R M. The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation. New York：Oxford University Press，2012：85—107：85.

In this research, dancers’ motivation is shown to be intrinsic rather than extrinsic, as it is related to their strong engagement in the dance and the enjoyment it gives them rather than being determined by external constraints or the desire to win awards.

The research used semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and also questionnaires,to interpret the motivations for participating in Scottish Cèilidh dance. Some of the participants were contacts at the New Scotland Country Dance Society at the University of Edinburgh (NSCDS), where I danced,while others were introduced by the contacts or were people whom I had not met, but who danced at Cèilidhs in Edinburgh in 2016 outside the university context. The interviews and focus groups lasted for around an hour to an hour and a half. Data collection took place from mid-May to the end of June 2016, with four individual interviews, and two focus groups with three participants each. The participants included adults in their early twenties: one Japanese female, one German male, and one Scottish male, all of whom were students at the University of Edinburgh and who either belonged to the NSCDS or went to Cèilidhs from time to time. Another female in her thirties was a tourist from Mexico, and one other young male in his early twenties was originally from Germany but had been studying in Edinburgh for several years. There were also two people in their 30s or 40s, one female from Taiwan, China, and a male from the Middle East, and three males aged 50 and above. Ten participants sufficed for this research as they were from different cultural backgrounds, with different age ranges.Since I did not know them personally and for privacy considerations, I did not ask them for their occupation.I had prepared some questions but followed the interviewees’ stories and adjusted the order and content of some questions accordingly.

I also conducted ten observations, including both public Cèilidhs and Cèilidh classes (as well as one country dance class to see the differences between Cèilidh and country dance) at different locations in Edinburgh and with ten different callers, including some teachers who had callers’ roles at Cèilidhs. With a view to finding out what teaching strategies the Cèilidh teachers use to motivate dancers, the focus of the observations was on the teachers rather than the students during the classes. In order to gain a more natural understanding and with permission of the Cèilidh caller, it was appropriate for me to conduct participant observation, meaning I was one of the dancers in the events. On some occasions, there were people who sat in the corner, watching the dancing; in those cases, I chose direct observation, as I could join the others who were resting and watching, and I was able to record more detailed field notes than when I was a participant observer.

My questionnaires had printed and online versions.In order to collect more information about why people engage in Cèilidh dancing, paper questionnaires were distributed randomly to a wide range of dancers at different Cèilidh events. Questionnaires provide a way to confirm data from interviews and to triangulate data by using more than one collection method①ROBSON C，MCCARTAN K. Real World Research：A Resource for Users of Social Research Methods in Applied Settings［M］. 4th ed. New York：Wiley，2016.. Questionnaire data collected from Scottish Cèilidh dance students and other Cèilidh dancers were employed for two main purposes: to triangulate interviews with Cèilidh dancers on their views about participating in Cèilidh, and to provide more detailed information about the factors that contribute to engagement in Cèilidh dancing. Depending on their preferences, some participants answered the questionnaire as well as were interviewed. This research was conducted solely in Edinburgh, but at different locations in the city and at different dance events.

Fig. 3 Stephen and Helen Jones, Cèilidh, Sunday Cèilidh in the Square-Wimborne Minster Folk Festival 2022, 2022, in Wimborne Minster, Dorset, England② JONES S，JONES H. Cèilidh，Sunday Cèilidh in the square- wimborne minster folk festival 2022［EB/OL］.（ 2022—02—16）［2022—06—01］. https://www.flickr.com/photos/dorsetbays/52150523808/.

Fig.4 Stoneflower on Flickr, Cèilidh, Dancing, 2009, in Islington,London① STONEFLOWER on FLICKR. Cèilidh，Dancing［EB/OL］. （2009—02—15）［2022—06—01］. https://www.flickr.com/photos/stoneflower/3281150989/in/photostream/.

Regarding data analysis, I adopted the thematic coding approach to interpreting the data derived from the interviews and focus groups. This approach means that data should be coded and labelled thematically②ROBSON C，MCCARTAN K. Real World Research：A Resource for Users of Social Research Methods in Applied Settings［M］. 4th ed. New York：Wiley，2016.,and it facilitated grouping into themes the reasons why people engage in Cèilidh dancing. In this project, themes could include ‘fun’, ‘music’, and ‘enjoyment’, as these are reasons people give for why they want to do Cèilidh dancing, based on their lived experience.

The purpose of the research and the research questions should be explained to the participants and informed consent should be provided in signed consent forms before interviews and observations begin③MASON J. Qualitative Researching［M］. 3rd ed. London：SAGE，2017..Gray (2017) states that people who are conducting the research should clarify its purpose and use④GRAY D E. Doing Research in the Real World［M］. 4th ed. London：SAGE，2017., while confidentiality issues and potential uses should also be stated. For most Cèilidh events, I did not obtain signed consent to audio or video record participants and instead used field notes. All interview/focus group participants were over 18 and signed the forms and knew that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Regarding confidentiality, all information collected through this project is treated confidentially and anonymity is assured.Personal information and views are confidential and kept anonymous through the use of pseudonyms. Direct quotes from the interviews, observations, or questionnaire surveys may be used in the written report.

Results and Discussion

Findings from Observations in the Field

Ten observations are sufficient for this research as the ten events included both public Cèilidhs and Cèilidh classes at different locations in Edinburgh and had ten different callers, meaning that different people’s strategies for motivating could be seen in this research. There are several Cèilidh dance events in Edinburgh and several Cèilidh callers, and only with their permission could I conduct the observations during Cèilidh events. Most of them replied that they were happy to help. I did not know which kind of teaching or methods of leading they would use during Cèilidh dancing and therefore I used random purposive sampling. I was often asked to participate in dancing, while one time I was asked only to observe as the steps were at an advanced level, so I took notes during or after Cèilidh events. Because I did not obtain consent,I do not have any recordings from most Cèilidh events,but I do have field notes. According to Thomas (2017),watching, keeping a diary, interviews and introspection can all be used as methods of observation⑤THOMAS G. How to Do Your Research Project：A Guide for Students［M］. 3rd ed. Los Angeles：SAGE，2017..

Based on my observations, dance callers have different identities: they could be teachers, individual callers,hosts who present the events and stand on stage with a microphone, or band members. From what I observed, it appeared that some callers did not motivate dancers to dance or had very little effect on their motivation, as they just stood in front of them or remained seated, merely communicating the names of the dances. It was also noteworthy that there were relatively few occurrences of cueing or demonstrations;it appeared to be assumed that most dancers knew the movements already. In one case, the caller, who was also the host at an event, did motivate people to join dancing, but he taught movements and interacted with dancers. However,the callers’ roles are different in different cases: in the dance classes they also functioned as dance teachers, using more verbal expressions and body movements to guide and communicate with dancers than did hosts or band members.

It is worth mentioning that according to my observations, some Cèilidh callers displayed positive behaviour towards participants and were more like guides in the Cèilidh events. They motivated dancers by using positive hand gestures and comments and by giving brief introductions to the dances. On some occasions when I was dancing or observing, I was encouraged by the callers’ body language and cheering words. In these situations, dancers were relaxed, and callers were not taught strict dance movements. Although callers used direct teaching and command teaching, and the classes seemed teacher-centred, the dancers enjoyed dancing.Dancers are motivated by teachers who encourage a noncompetitive environment, a characteristic that could be linked to motivational climates in dance teaching.

Results from Interviews

All interviews and focus groups were audio recorded.Some participants provided very helpful answers to my research questions, and some recordings were transcribed as soon as the interviews were finished. The other recordings were not transcribed but have been reviewed. The reasons for participating in Cèilidh dancing that emerged from analysis of interviews and focus groups can be grouped under the themes of social networks, fun, fitness, Scottish culture, flexible dance forms and ‘easy to do’. For example,Bill from the Isle of Man, who was born in 1978, said: ‘It doesn’t matter if you dance wrong, dancing for fun and enjoyment is more important. And Cèilidh only has a few steps. Cèilidh is a way to generate money for [hosting]organisations’. Only one participant cited the Cèilidh callers as a reason for engaging in Scottish Cèilidh dancing. When I asked others, they did not cite the callers as a reason to continue dancing, however I myself knew that if the caller was not encouraging I would not attend his/her sessions again. Also, the only country dancer interviewee, Mike(who was European) said that he sometimes dances for social reasons, including dancing with people and bands:“Socially I can dance with people, or a band or programme I like. It’s challenging and good for mental health as a lot of sequences need to be remembered”. Anna, from Mexico,who did Cèilidh in 2016, said: “Happiness, culture and other advantages can be shared and gather people”. As a tourist,unlike most other interviewees, she was keen to make friends and socialise with others in order to get to know Edinburgh better. Through Cèilidhs, she got to know me and a Japanese interviewee, and she invited us to dance on the beach together (freestyle) before she left Edinburgh. Friends can meet more frequently at Cèilidhs than if they do not dance, and there were a couple of other interviewees who said they met their partner and even got married as a result of Cèilidhs. From one of them was a questionnaire respondent too and met his partner at cèilidhs, which means one of them met their partner and the other one met their fiancé.

Findings from Questionnaires

The questionnaires asked similar questions to the interviews but were shorter, and they asked participants for more background information. From the random questionnaires that were completed by different people,it is clear that participants in Scottish Cèilidh dancing are diverse, ranging across different ages, genders and cultural backgrounds. A total of sixty-eight questionnaires were completed (fifteen online and fifty-three on paper). I emailed the societies/Cèilidh organisers in Edinburgh and people promoted my research with online questionnaires. Also, I posted them on Facebook with my contact details. Some people just completed them online without necessarily contacting me via email. Some of my interviewees were willing to do both interviews and questionnaires online or in hard copy. Others were approached randomly at Cèilidhs and they helped with the questionnaires. Thirty-five respondents were from Scotland and twelve from other places in the UK;eleven were from other European countries; seven were from the US; one was from Japan, and one was originally from Taiwan. These participants included forty-three females, twenty-three males and two who preferred not to identify their gender. The age groups included 18—24; 25—34; 35—49; and 50+. Fifty respondents participated in Cèilidh dancing regularly, while others participated once or twice per year. Four participants were tourists and were trying Cèilidh dancing for the first time. Again, the questionnaire sampling was purposive but random: only people who liked Cèilidh dancing and who were over 18 years old completed them. The cultural backgrounds and age groups of the online respondents were unknown until they completed the questionnaires.

The findings from the sixty-eight questionnaires as to why people participate were similar to the themes and the answers from the interviews and focus groups:social networks (65), fun (60), fitness (58), Scottish cultural immersion (43), flexible dance forms (40) and‘easy to do’ (44) were given as reasons for participation.Respondents cited positive experiences such as making good friends, and even finding a fiancé, while two other people found partners. Both questionnaires and interviews contained the same questions about people’s perspectives on their engagement in and experiences of Cèilidh dancing. Moreover, the questionnaires uncovered other findings: five respondents cited the family-oriented atmosphere and sixteen cited the great music as the reason they engage in Cèilidh dancing.

Discussion of the Findings

Perceptions of Scottish Cèilidh Dancing Based on Participants’ Experiences

Six themes regarding the reasons people engage in Scottish Cèilidh dancing can be summarized from the data. The first of these is the social networking aspect;dancers can make friends and meet new people, and this is not only the case for tourists but also for people who live in Scotland.

Tina used to live in South America but she has been living in Scotland for a few years. One reason she enjoys Cèilidh dancing is because of its social networks:

‘You could make friends very easily at Cèilidhs and people normally are quite friendly … I also like to bring friends … Once, a person gave my boyfriend a kilt when he knew he didn’t have one.He said: “I have one more kilt and I don’t need it.”I don’t know how much it is but kilts are not cheap,you know. We didn’t expect we could get a kilt. He is very nice so we became friends … You can meet friends regularly at cèilidhs if you like dancing’.

Bill has also been living in Edinburgh for a number of years. He said he tends to meet people at Cèilidhs: ‘I mean certainly with me, a lot of my friends dance, so …that’s how I met my partner — through dancing’. Thomas is British and is staying in Edinburgh. He said: ‘Social benefits, it helps new people to learn Cèilidh dance,especially international visitors to Edinburgh or Scotland because I think it gives the visitors a good impression of Scotland’.

From the interviews, I could see that participants anticipated that they could enlarge their networks and make friends, and they had positive social experiences.A few questionnaires, completed by tourists, show that they would also like to meet new people in Edinburgh.As mentioned above, people have even met their life partners. Wingrave and Harrold (1984) say that traditionally, Scottish Country Dance was merely a social dance form to celebrate finishing the harvest at annual balls held by the lairds for their tenants①WINGRAVE H，HARROLD R. Aspects of Folk Dance in Europe［M］. London：Dance Books，1984.. Morrison(2003) states that Scottish Cèilidh dancing has the same origins in socialising as Scottish country dance②MORRISON C. Culture at the Core：Invented Traditions and Imagined Communities. Part I：Identity Formation［J］. International Review of Scottish Studies，2003，28：3—21..Therefore, it is understandable that in contemporary society people take part in Cèilidh dancing for social purposes.

Another theme that many people expressed was the element of having fun, indicating that they felt happy when the danced Cèilidh. Both in interviews and questionnaires, people used ‘fun’ or ‘a(chǎn) lot of fun’as answers to the question of why people engage in Cèilidh dancing. Some interviewees and questionnaire participants started learning Scottish Cèilidh dancing from dance classes at EUNCS (Edinburgh University New Scotland Country Dance Society) or other societies and then participated in Scottish Cèilidh dancing events.McCutchen (2006) argues that the function of educational dance is not only to produce specialists but for the enjoyment of participants③MCCUTCHEN B P. Teaching Dance as Art in Education［M］. Champaign：Human Kinetics，2006.. Scottish Cèilidh dancing is related to people’s emotional experiences, especially

happiness, and enjoyment.

Also, fitness was mentioned by many participants.Cèilidh dancing is a kind of exercise; it can help dancers keep fit and is more fun than some sports. Smith and Pocknell (2007) state that for the purpose of the English National Curriculum, dance is located within physical education, providing advantages for building well-being and healthy lifestyles①SMITH F，POCKNELL L. A Practical Guide to Teaching Dance［M］. Leeds：Coachwise Business Solutions, 2007.. Similarly, McCutchen (2006)says that dance as an art form could help to meet PE goals, but it is not only about doing exercises, it is more about fun and also aesthetics②MCCUTCHEN B P. Teaching Dance as Art in Education［M］. Champaign：Human Kinetics，2006.. Participants in this study frequently mention that Cèilidh dancing is good exercise,similar to cardio workout at the gym, but more engaging.This study is in agreement with research from 2015 which shows that different psychological factors motivate people to participate in social dancing. These reasons include fitness, mood enhancement, intimacy, socialising,‘trance’, mastery, self-confidence, and escapism③MARAZ A，URBáN R，GRIFFITHS M D，et al. An Empirical Investigation of Dance Addiction［J］. PLOS One，2015，10（5）：e0125988..

The flexibility of the dance form is another reason people engage in Cèilidh dancing. Because it is informal,dancers are not very rulebound④MELIN M H. Scottish Dance at the Crossroads 2006［C］//Dance Research Forum Ireland：Proceedings of 1st International Conference 2006.June 22-25, 2006, University of Limerick, Limerick. Limerick：Dance Research Forum Ireland，2007：47—56.. As some participants said: ‘if you make mistakes when dancing, people will not complain’; ‘no one seems to be perfect’. Overall,people can have fun and engage in Cèilidh dancing without fear of failure.

There are relatively few steps, so ‘easy to do’ is another theme presented by participants. Ewart and Ewart(1996) explain that one of the advantages of learning Cèilidh dancing is that most dance routines are repeated after a 16 or 32-bar sequence, and, apart from set dances,all dancers perform the same routine at the same time⑤EWART D，EWART M. Scottish Cèilidh Dancing［M］. Edinburgh：Mainstream，1996..Shepherd and Johnstone (1992) highlight the fact that instructions are often given by Cèilidh callers so that dancers can follow⑥SHEPHERD R. Let’s Have a Cèilidh：The Essential Guide to Scottish Dancing［M］. Edinburgh：Canongate Books Limited，1992.. Furthermore, as mentioned during interviews, for international participants, one of the main reasons they engage in Scottish Cèilidh dancing is ‘to know more about Scottish culture’.

One further important element that needs to be emphasised is the live music. This is not very obvious from the interviews, although some questionnaire respondents claimed that live music or live bands at Cèilidhs motivate them. Of the sixty-eight questionnaire respondents, thirty-three are foreigners and thirty-five are British. Both British and foreign participants expressed positive attitudes to live Scottish Cèilidh music. It has been discussed that culture is a reason why foreigners like Cèilidh dancing. Sheridan and Byrne (2008) have demonstrated that traditional Scottish musicians help young Scottish children to learn music and acquire confidence and pride in their Scottish culture⑦SHERIDAN M，BYRNE C. Cèilidh Culture and Higher Education［J］. I nternational Journal of Music Education，2008，26（2）：147—159.. Some participants in my research are Scottish and they enjoy Celtic music. Furthermore, live music helps to create a lively atmosphere.

Cèilidh Callers’ Strategies for Motivating Participants

Potential motivating factors that are strengthened through successful learning and social recognition can transform into real and long-lasting motivation factors⑧SIMONS P. Constructive Learning：The Role of the Learner［M］//DUFFY T M，LOWYCK J，JONASSEN D H，et al. Designing Environments for Constructive Learning. New York：Springer-Verlag，1993：291—313..It is essential for long-term, regular Cèilidh dancers to have instinctive motivation so that they dance regularly,otherwise, it is likely to be a one-off activity. As such,students can sustain continuous and real, generative,discoverable and self-regulating active learning⑨SIMONS P. Constructive Learning：The Role of the Learner［M］//DUFFY T M，LOWYCK J，JONASSEN D H，et al. Designing Environments for Constructive Learning. New York：Springer-Verlag，1993：291—313..Although teachers can play a counselling, guidance,and support role, it is up to the learners to learn through their active participation and use their own efforts to achieve their goals. Incentives can also be a factor, but they cannot replace a learner’s willingness to learn. Most participants did not mention the teachers as a reason why they went to Cèilidhs, although some dancers admitted to liking some classes/Cèilidhs better than others. By contrast, a group of dancers who are currently participating in my PhD project have all said that during Covid, when they were not able to dance in person, the teacher was really supportive and helped them maintain their online Scottish Country Dancing attendance.

Ryan and Deci (2000) state that: ‘Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence’,and that it ‘refers to doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, rather than its instrumental value’①RYAN R M，DECI E L. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations：Classic Definitions and New Directions［J］. Contemporary Educational Psychology，2000，25（1）：54—67.. It is likely that intrinsic motivation influences a student more than extrinsic motivation over the longer term and outside school-based dancing. Regarding motivation,Salkind (2010) states that intrinsic and extrinsic are two categories of motivation②SALKIND N J. SAGE Directions in Educational Psychology［C］. London: SAGE，2010.. He also asserts that intrinsic motivation refers to specific learning activities that are aimed at enabling students to obtain their own emotional satisfaction, resulting in a sense of success. This provides an intrinsic motivation to engage in further learning and development, based on enjoyment rather than external rewards or pressures.

When the Cèilidh dancers were asked if they had been motivated by Cèilidh dance teachers or dance callers during dance events, participants were unsure about how much they felt that they were motivated by Cèilidh callers. John is an Englishman in his sixties, who said: “There are many people who do not dance during Cèilidhs, which is disappointing. They (callers) try to encourage them to dance”. But for him, it might be the fun of Scottish Cèilidh dancing that made him engage in it rather than being motivated by a caller. When I asked what he thought motivated people of all ages and genders to engage in Cèilidh dance, he said ‘it’s lots of fun’.

Another example is Thomas, an elderly half-Scottish man who is originally from Scotland but moved to England at a young age. When I asked if he had been motivated by Cèilidh dance teachers during events, he answered:

I think probably, no. I don’t think I have been motivated by the teachers, but particularly later on in each academic year, there are not enough dancers to make the class continue; so I’m interested in making sure that class keeps continuing by coming along and being an advanced dancer, perhaps to help lead the new people through the dancing.

In agreement with John, Thomas does not think Cèilidh callers influence his motivation to dance, but he agrees that they do have some effect on encouraging dancers. However, regarding the question of callers’ and dancers’ motivation, a few questionnaire respondents wrote ‘No’ in reply to the question about whether or not the caller influenced their motivation. Therefore, although dance callers contribute to some dancers’ experiences,they do not seem to be a factor influencing them to continue engaging in Scottish Cèilidh dance. This was contrary to my own experience, both as an observer and a participant. As an observer, I noted the efforts made by some callers to encourage dancers. As a participant,I would not want to attend dances with a bad caller. For me, their contribution was important, because in the past when doing Chinese folk dance, I had experienced a bad dance atmosphere and did not want to be in that situation again. I now engage with dancing for fun, not for exercise. However, the interviewees did not have a trained dance background and had not had this negative experience. They took for granted that the atmosphere would be relaxing and not make them nervous, which may explain, at least in part, why they did not appreciate the role of the callers as much as I did.

Nonetheless, there are a few characteristics of callers and teachers which should be noted. First, Scottish Cèilidh callers usually give brief introductions about the next dance sequence, such as ‘The next dance is…’ and ‘This is…’. These typically include the name of the dance,what the dance form is, and perhaps some historical information. During my ten observation periods, some callers hardly ever said anything while they were dancing,but others gave clear instructions. Second, in addition to this facilitation, appropriate cueing by callers reminds dancers about the dance movements. ‘Cueing tells students what, when, and where of a movement. Teachers use cues to remind students about how they do the movements,and what they should do next’.①KASSING G. JAY D M. Dance Teaching Methods and Curriculum Design：Comprehensive K—12 Dance Education［M］. 2nd ed.Champaign：Human Kinetics，2021：63.Both interview and questionnaire participants consider those instructions as very helpful when dancing; also, they think cueing helps them remember movements. Besides reminding dancers of current and upcoming movements, cueing also provides introductory prompts that lead into movements, such as ‘ready, and’. This was noted in my observations. For example, a caller at an event did a demonstration and then joined the dancing for each dance piece. He often corrected participants’ movements. He announced the name of the dances before each dance and taught moves. He invited some dancers to demonstrate together. He said funny things quite a few times and kept giving cues for the dances.

Another relevant example is how a teacher stated the names of the dances before each dance and then taught the moves. Sometimes he gave cues for the dances.Pittman, Waller et al. (2015) state that cueing falls into three categories: cueing when dancers are stationary as an introduction to help start a dance, cueing as a prompt when dancing, and cueing to introduce the next movement②PITTMAN A M，WALLER M S，DARK C L. Dance a While：A Handbook for Folk，Square，Contra，and Social Dance［M］. Long Grove：Waveland Press，2015.. As mentioned above, Cèilidh dancing is not as formal as Scottish country dance, but dancers still need to know the movements. Scottish Cèilidh dancing has several sets, and for this reason, cueing is helpful for people to remember movements.

The third characteristic of callers and teachers is that from my observations, their positive gestures indicate the dance routines and sequences. For example, the arm can show the direction of the next movement with a clear and powerful gesture. Teachers’ awareness of how their facial expressions,eye contact, gestures, and body posture communicate their feelings and attitudes is essential③HUDSON P，GLOMB N. If It Takes Two to Tango，Then Why not Teach both Partners to Dance? Collaboration Instruction for All Educators［J］. Journal of Learning Disabilities，1997，30（4）：442—448.. In Cèilidh dancing,positive gestures can remind dancers of the routine, and to some extent, they function similarly to cueing.

Last but not least, dancers can also be motivated by positive feedback from Cèilidh callers. Positive feedback is similar to ‘coaching behavior that reinforces an athlete by recognising and rewarding good (proficient/quality) performance’④CHELLADURAI P，RIEMER H A. Measurement of Leadership in Sport［M］//DUDA J L. Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology Measurement. Morgantown，WV：Fitness Information Technology，1998：227—253，238.. When I was observing, the Cèilidh callers sometimes said ‘good’ or applauded after a dance. Judging by my observations, the net result was encouraging for the dancers.

Motivations

For dancers, a motivational climate is the psychological atmosphere in which they train, rehearse and perform⑤AMES C. Achievement Goals，Motivational Climate，and Motivational Processes［M］//ROBERTS G. Motivation in Sport and Exercise.Champaign Human Kinetics，1992：161—176..Miulli and Nordin-Bates (2011) believe that while everyone in the class contributes to the motivational climate, the main responsibility for creating a positive environment lies with the teacher⑥MIULLI M，NORDIN-BATES S M. Motivational Climates：What They Are，and Why They Matter［J］. The IADMS Bulletin for Teachers （The International Association for Dance Medicine and Science），2011，3（2）：5—8.. However, as shown above, Cèilidh callers do motivate people to some extent.Cèilidh dancers look for enjoyment and fun. Although they come to Cèilidhs and cannot choose the caller, it makes the events more enjoyable if the caller is friendly and pleasant.By adopting a professional approach, teachers can provide support and encourage autonomy, thereby promoting internalised and more self-determined motivation⑦QUESTED E，DUDA J L. Antecedents of Burnout among Elite Dancers：A Longitudinal Test of Basic Needs Theory［J］. Psychology of Sport and Exercise，2011，12（2）：159—167..

Cèilidh involves dancing with partners and also frequent changes of partners, which makes it particularly sociable. Also, especially in folk dance classes, it may be seen as important for teachers to be friendly to dance students, especially when the dancers are not trained for stage or competition purposes and need partners for social dances. By contrast, in ballroom dance, dancers need one partner and they are not supposed to change partners in every dance. In street dance classes, the teachers can also be friendly and encouraging rather than being strict and making the class competitive, but they are not dancing with partners. Bambra and Webster (1972) say that in some folk dance schools, knowledge of dances is required, but enjoyment should also be considered①BAMBRA A W. EBSTER M. Teaching Folk Dancing［M］. London：Batsford，1972..Indeed, in my experience and that of my classmates who majored in dance with me, enjoyment is a by-product of all good learning situations. The participants in this study were fortunate not to experience highly competitive dance atmospheres, which would have interfered with their enjoyment. Luo (2014) states that folk dancing usually engages people’s emotions and that happiness and enjoyment are an important part of this experience②羅雄巖. 中國民間舞蹈文化教程［M］.英譯本.梅雪，譯.北京：知識產(chǎn)權(quán)出版社，2014.. In order to make folk dance classes motivational, teachers should therefore be kind to students rather than only focusing on perfecting their technique.

Dancing and learning with peers, rather than comparing and competing with them, can also facilitate the motivational climate③MIULLI M，NORDIN-BATES S M. Motivational Climates：What They Are，and Why They Matter［J］.The IADMS Bulletin for Teachers （The International Association for Dance Medicine and Science），2011，3（2）：5—8.. Some respondents stated that they learned moves from peers if they were not able to catch up during Cèilidh dancing events. Bambra and Webster (1972) argue that folk dancing should be taught and considered as a group rather than a solo dance activity④BAMBRA A，WEBSTER M. Teaching Folk Dancing［M］. London：Batsford，1972.. Scottish country dance is teamwork,meaning that people should dance as a group: the size of the set, such as width and length, should be managed through teamwork and the pattern of the dance should be defined by dancers’ correct positions, which also involves teamwork (Ebook Manual of Scottish Country Dancing)⑤RUSSELL H，DIX A，ROONEY D. The Manual of Scottish Country Dancing［M］. 3rd ed. Edinburgh：The Royal Scottish Country Dance Society，2013.. Thus, people can think about others as well as their own contribution. This indicates that peer support might be useful for establishing an atmosphere in which people are willing to join folk dancing.

Another motivational factor is live music, and in fact dancers sometimes play instruments. Luo (2014) says that folk dancing is normally accompanied by music and that some dancers are musicians as well⑥羅雄巖.中國民間舞蹈文化教程［M］.英譯本.梅雪，譯.北京：知識產(chǎn)權(quán)出版社，2014.. Once, in a public Cèilidh which I was observing, one of the musicians joined in a few dances. He was both a Cèilidh dancer and a musician. In questionnaires, many people mentioned that the live music cheered them up, or that they liked Celtic music. Some people said they were excited or happy to listen to live music rather than Cèilidh music on the radio.There is very little literature dedicated to Cèilidh dance motivation, however this research shows that live music is one of the reasons people engage in Cèilidh dancing.

Conducting this research reminded me of a previous experience: during my undergraduate studies, our class had a folk dance teacher who was an ethnic Wa,⑦The Wa people are a Southeast Asian ethnic group. Some of them live in China.and his teaching methods were different from all the other teachers we had at the university. For instance, he brought some traditional ethnic Wa instruments and taught us how to play them. Although we spent some time doing that when we should have been learning dances, we particularly enjoyed dancing to the live music, played by our classmates. I still remember my undergraduate classmates’ comments regarding that course: we felt happy and even experienced freedom, and we really enjoyed dancing —that is what folk dance should be. Bambra and Webster (1972) argue that no matter where the folk dance is from, in all folk dance teaching (as in other subjects), the aim should be to make it interesting⑧BAMBRA A，WEBSTER M. Teaching Folk Dancing［M］. London：Batsford，1972.. This is in agreement with my previous experience of learning ethnic Wa dance as well as with my observations in this study.

Limitations

One limitation of this research is that it discusses the objectives of participants who like Cèilidh dancing, with the exception of one interviewee who stated that he likes country dancing but not Cèilidh dancing. There are other people who do not like Scottish Cèilidh dancing, and if the research could explore some reasons for their views they could be used to work out how to attract more people.However, I cannot address this issue as I did not recruit enough participants who did not like Cèilidh dancing.Although country dancing is not in the research questions,it was included at some points in the discussion, not only to produce richer data but also to be able to compare with Cèilidh dancing.

Only one of the ten interviewees in the study (a young adult) was Scottish. An older interviewee was half Scottish,half English, and one was English. Most participants were not British, and the interviewees might therefore not be very representative due to low numbers from Britain. However,as most interviewees are from other countries, data from the interviews can still show diverse perspectives.

Another limitation is that while this research highlights some factors surrounding why people engage in Cèilidh dancing, those reasons have not been discussed in detail, taking account of participants’ ages, genders, or cultural backgrounds.The reasons people gave for why they like Cèilidh dancing are more generic, though some have been classified in terms of being more characteristic of tourists or locals.

Conclusion

The research was based on people who dance in Edinburgh and used interviews, focus groups, observations,and questionnaires to interpret participation in Scottish Cèilidh dance by members of the general public. First,observations were carried out and participants were recruited so that semi-structured interviews and focus groups could be conducted. Questionnaires were completed at different time, sometimes before or sometimes after the classes/events which I observed. I gave paper questionnaires to people at different Cèilidh events randomly and sent online survey links to people.

This research used thematic data to illustrate why people engage in Cèilidh dancing. It aimed to shed new light on the general public’s participation in dancing and to discover reasons why ordinary people can enjoy Scottish Cèilidh dancing without limitation of age, gender or culture. What surprised me from the very beginning was that the dancers were not from dance training backgrounds and the callers did not make a living from this. For them,it was intended to be more of a hobby or a regular activity they engaged in rather than something serious, but they made efforts to be committed. Regarding the participants in this research, although some also did other kinds of dancing regularly, they all did Cèilidh occasionally at least.The research findings confirmed my initial expectations that Cèilidh has some features that attract people from different backgrounds. The reasons (social networks, fun,fitness, Scottish cultural immersion, flexible dance forms,‘easy to do’ and live music) for this engagement may be applicable to attempts to help preserve other types of folk(community social) dance. The features and advantages of Cèilidh that are similar to other folk and social dances might be referenced in future studies, which could explore further strategies for developing a motivational climate to encourage more people to engage in dancing.