陳婧,何友吉
(東南大學(xué)醫(yī)學(xué)院 微生物與免疫學(xué)系,江蘇 南京 210009)
結(jié)直腸癌已發(fā)展成為中國(guó)第五大癌癥殺手[1],遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移是結(jié)直腸癌患者的主要死因,40%~50%的患者在原發(fā)灶切除后發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移。不可手術(shù)的肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者盡管有靶向藥物的使用,其中位生存期仍不超過(guò)2年。因此,盡早發(fā)現(xiàn)肝轉(zhuǎn)移對(duì)于判斷結(jié)直腸癌患者的預(yù)后以及是否需要采取干預(yù)措施至關(guān)重要。
腫瘤細(xì)胞的浸潤(rùn)和轉(zhuǎn)移是一個(gè)復(fù)雜的過(guò)程。腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移的“宿命論”認(rèn)為,決定腫瘤生物學(xué)行為及臨床表型的遺傳學(xué)改變?cè)谠l(fā)腫瘤中已經(jīng)存在[2],該學(xué)說(shuō)已被Van’t Veer等用芯片技術(shù)在乳腺癌的原發(fā)灶中證實(shí)[3]。
在結(jié)直腸癌的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),肝轉(zhuǎn)移灶中的DNA拷貝數(shù)譜及基因表達(dá)譜與其原發(fā)灶高度相似,與上述“宿命”模型一致[4- 5],表明從結(jié)直腸癌的原發(fā)灶出發(fā)能夠找出預(yù)測(cè)其肝轉(zhuǎn)移的生物學(xué)指標(biāo)。在對(duì)結(jié)直腸癌組織和細(xì)胞株展開(kāi)的大量分子和細(xì)胞遺傳學(xué)研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),結(jié)直腸癌的發(fā)展有明確的病理階段,每個(gè)階段有特異的癌/抑癌基因的突變[6]。這些改變發(fā)生的關(guān)鍵機(jī)制是基因組的不穩(wěn)定,可歸納為兩種方式:由DNA錯(cuò)配修復(fù)缺陷導(dǎo)致的微衛(wèi)星不穩(wěn)定(microsatellite instability, MIN or MSI),僅占15%,其腫瘤細(xì)胞通常保持正常的二倍體狀態(tài);另一種則是在染色體水平上呈現(xiàn)的基因組不穩(wěn)定性,即由于染色體不穩(wěn)定(chromosomal instable,CIN)而產(chǎn)生非整倍體(aneuploidy)的變化,占85%。
本文中作者對(duì)目前正在從染色體、基因、蛋白等各水平尋找與結(jié)直腸癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移相關(guān)分子標(biāo)志物的文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行綜述。
基于現(xiàn)有aCGH(array comparative genomic hybridization)和SNP(single nucleotide polymorphism)的研究,結(jié)直腸癌中常被報(bào)道的染色體改變包括7, 8q, 13q 和20q的擴(kuò)增及4, 8p,14q, 15q, 17p 和18q的缺失[7- 9],現(xiàn)已證實(shí)DNA拷貝數(shù)的變化發(fā)生在特定模式下,并與不同的臨床表現(xiàn)相關(guān)[10- 12]。
目前SNP芯片的分辨率已經(jīng)能夠檢測(cè)到染色體上小于2.5kb有變異的區(qū)域,Sayagues J.M等用高分辨率的SNP(500K)檢測(cè)了23例肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者的原發(fā)灶,發(fā)現(xiàn)7, 8q,11q,13q,20q和X的擴(kuò)增以及1p, 8p, 17p,18q的缺失最為常見(jiàn)。該研究認(rèn)為,在變異染色體中4種重現(xiàn)的斷裂點(diǎn)位于1p1,8p12,17p11.2,20p12.1,又以17p11.2最為多見(jiàn)[13]。
采用FISH、aCGH技術(shù),以發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移和未發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)移或肝外臟器轉(zhuǎn)移的原發(fā)性結(jié)直腸癌為標(biāo)本進(jìn)行比較,發(fā)現(xiàn)肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者原發(fā)灶中染色體變化最為明顯的是20q,其擴(kuò)增倍數(shù)明顯高于未發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移組[5,14],還有一部分染色體的變化表現(xiàn)為8q的擴(kuò)增及18q的缺失[5,15]。
原癌基因ZEN217定位于20q13.2,被認(rèn)為是有可能驅(qū)動(dòng)20q13擴(kuò)增的靶分子。在結(jié)直腸癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移灶中,ZEN217出現(xiàn)擴(kuò)增的頻率明顯高于原發(fā)灶,未發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的患者其原發(fā)灶未出現(xiàn)該基因的多拷貝,提示ZEN217的擴(kuò)增增加了結(jié)直腸癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[16]。
定位于20q13.13,編碼一種輸出蛋白,介導(dǎo)經(jīng)典核定位信號(hào)(NLS)通路中輸入蛋白-α的回收[17]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)CSE1L/CAS的mRNA在腫瘤細(xì)胞中表達(dá)高于正常腺體細(xì)胞,該基因被干擾后結(jié)直腸癌細(xì)胞黏附能力下降,凋亡比例增加。免疫組化的方法顯示,CSE1L/CAS在結(jié)直腸癌細(xì)胞胞質(zhì)中的高表達(dá)與高TNM分期及浸潤(rùn)深度相關(guān),高表達(dá)CSE1L/CAS的結(jié)腸癌細(xì)胞系HT- 29具有向肝臟轉(zhuǎn)移的高風(fēng)險(xiǎn),5/7的小鼠在注射HT- 29后出現(xiàn)肝臟轉(zhuǎn)移灶而無(wú)其他臟器轉(zhuǎn)移,提示該蛋白參與了結(jié)直腸癌細(xì)胞的肝轉(zhuǎn)移過(guò)程[18]。
多種腫瘤細(xì)胞經(jīng)常高表達(dá)轉(zhuǎn)錄因子E2F1[19],基因定位于20q11.2, E2F1游離化后活化S期相關(guān)蛋白?,F(xiàn)認(rèn)為,E2F1活性的調(diào)節(jié)紊亂是腫瘤形成過(guò)程中的一個(gè)始發(fā)事件。通過(guò)芯片技術(shù)發(fā)現(xiàn)了越來(lái)越多的E2F1的靶分子,這些分子本身或它們作用的次級(jí)蛋白可能在轉(zhuǎn)移過(guò)程中發(fā)揮了作用。Marian等用CGH及q- PCR的方法發(fā)現(xiàn),結(jié)腸癌肝、肺轉(zhuǎn)移灶中20q有普遍的擴(kuò)增(16/18),而E2F1拷貝數(shù)目在肝、肺轉(zhuǎn)移灶中均值為4.1、3.9,在原發(fā)灶中的拷貝數(shù)為2.52[20]。
定位于18q21.2,是公認(rèn)的抑癌基因,編碼一種穿膜蛋白,表達(dá)于大部分正常組織以及腸黏膜上,參與細(xì)胞- 細(xì)胞以及細(xì)胞- 基質(zhì)間的相互調(diào)節(jié),影響細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)、分化及轉(zhuǎn)移的發(fā)生[21]。18號(hào)染色體的缺失在腺瘤向浸潤(rùn)性腫瘤的發(fā)展過(guò)程中呈上升趨勢(shì)[22],DCC被認(rèn)為是這種雜合性缺失的靶基因。原發(fā)灶中DCC的缺失與患者的預(yù)后不良相關(guān)[23],并可作為結(jié)直腸癌遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移的預(yù)測(cè)指標(biāo),雖然這種預(yù)測(cè)的敏感性可能與患者的分期相關(guān),在所有患者中敏感性為42%,特異性為71%,在Ⅱ期患者中陽(yáng)性預(yù)測(cè)值為19%,陰性預(yù)測(cè)值為88%[24]。
定位于18q21.1,該基因產(chǎn)物是TGF-β信號(hào)通路中介導(dǎo)細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)和發(fā)育相關(guān)的中間產(chǎn)物,Smad4與Smad2、Smad3形成一種復(fù)合物作用于細(xì)胞核上,并在此激活TGF-β轉(zhuǎn)錄過(guò)程中的多個(gè)相關(guān)基因[25]。已有多篇文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,Smad4表達(dá)的變化更多出現(xiàn)在進(jìn)展性結(jié)直腸癌以及轉(zhuǎn)移性結(jié)直腸癌中。免疫組化的方法顯示,轉(zhuǎn)移灶比原發(fā)灶更易發(fā)生Smad4缺失,肝轉(zhuǎn)移灶比肝外轉(zhuǎn)移灶的缺失更易發(fā)生[26],當(dāng)給Balb/c小鼠注射CT26- Smad4下調(diào)的細(xì)胞系時(shí),小鼠發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加且小鼠肝轉(zhuǎn)移灶的重量明顯高于對(duì)照組,發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的小鼠平均生存時(shí)間明顯低于對(duì)照組(26dvs44.5d),說(shuō)明Smad4能夠抑制CT26在體內(nèi)的肝轉(zhuǎn)移傾向[27]。
定位于11q21- q22,負(fù)責(zé)正常情況下細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)重塑及病理性的基底膜及基質(zhì)的破壞。研究表明,攜帶有MMP- 7轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)子的細(xì)胞在SCID小鼠體內(nèi)更加具備向肌層侵襲及向肝臟轉(zhuǎn)移的能力,轉(zhuǎn)移灶中MMP- 7前體蛋白(pro- MMP7)表達(dá)高于正常肝組織[28]。有研究指出,入院時(shí)診斷有肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者的MMP- 7陽(yáng)性率(72%)高于5年后發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的患者(47%),所有轉(zhuǎn)移組患者原發(fā)灶MMP- 7的表達(dá)明顯高于未發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)移組的患者,并且這種轉(zhuǎn)移以淋巴循環(huán)途徑居多[29]。新近研究指出,患者血清中MMP- 7水平與患者年齡、腫瘤直徑及遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移相關(guān)[30]。
定位于8q24.3,編碼一種位于細(xì)胞膜表面的酪氨酸磷酸酶,22kD。Saha等應(yīng)用人基因表達(dá)系列分析(SAGE)首次證實(shí),PRL編碼的蛋白高表達(dá)于結(jié)直腸癌的肝轉(zhuǎn)移灶,而幾乎不表達(dá)于正常大腸上皮細(xì)胞表面,弱表達(dá)于腺瘤以及原發(fā)灶組織中[31]。Bardelli等擴(kuò)大了轉(zhuǎn)移灶的檢測(cè)范圍,發(fā)現(xiàn)PRL- 3只高表達(dá)于結(jié)直腸癌的大部分轉(zhuǎn)移灶(肝、肺、腦、淋巴結(jié)),而不在其他癌癥的肝轉(zhuǎn)移灶和原發(fā)灶中高表達(dá),且這種高表達(dá)不源于基因的擴(kuò)增[32]。Kato等證實(shí)PRL- 3基因在結(jié)直腸癌細(xì)胞肝轉(zhuǎn)移的過(guò)程中所扮演的角色是增強(qiáng)細(xì)胞的活動(dòng)性,敲除該基因后細(xì)胞的活動(dòng)性及在肝臟形成的克隆明顯減少[33]。也有報(bào)道認(rèn)為它不僅能破壞原血管的基底層有助于腫瘤細(xì)胞的擴(kuò)散,并能在轉(zhuǎn)移灶有助于異常新血管的生成[34]。
NDRG1(cap43/rit42/RTP/Drg1/TDD5)是第一個(gè)被證實(shí)的轉(zhuǎn)移抑制因子,位于8q24.2,NDRG1的過(guò)度表達(dá)能夠明顯抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞的轉(zhuǎn)移能力,當(dāng)給無(wú)胸腺的小鼠注入過(guò)量表達(dá)NDRG1的細(xì)胞系SW620后發(fā)現(xiàn),只有23%的小鼠發(fā)生了肝轉(zhuǎn)移而對(duì)照組有75%發(fā)生了肝轉(zhuǎn)移[35]。SW480和SW620是來(lái)源于同一患者但轉(zhuǎn)移能力不同的兩株細(xì)胞系(SW620轉(zhuǎn)移能力強(qiáng)),當(dāng)SW480細(xì)胞中的NDRG1基因被干擾后,其表型及轉(zhuǎn)移能力均向SW620接近[36]。
定位于7q21- 31,編碼一種跨膜糖蛋白,與肝細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)因子/擴(kuò)散因子(HGF/SF)結(jié)合[37],可使細(xì)胞進(jìn)入有絲分裂及抗凋亡程序[38]。C-Met編碼的蛋白在血管重塑、細(xì)胞運(yùn)動(dòng)性能提高、生長(zhǎng)、侵襲、分化、遷移發(fā)揮作用[38- 40]。Zeng等用PCR- LDR/FISH的方法發(fā)現(xiàn),C- Met基因拷貝數(shù)目的增加在結(jié)直腸癌的原發(fā)灶中是一件小概率事件(9/247),但原發(fā)灶中C- Met基因拷貝數(shù)目增加的患者發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的概率較高(6/9),同時(shí)這類患者腫瘤細(xì)胞的浸潤(rùn)程度較深[41]。
在Ghadjar等的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),CCR6在原發(fā)灶組織中表達(dá)雖不盡相同,但高表達(dá)CCR6的患者發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的概率(9/11)要遠(yuǎn)高于低表達(dá)CCR6的患者(2/21),在多重回歸分析中控制性別、年齡、病理分級(jí)等相關(guān)因素后,原發(fā)灶中CCR6的高表達(dá)可以作為預(yù)測(cè)肝轉(zhuǎn)移的獨(dú)立因子[42],該基因定位于6q27。
miRNA是長(zhǎng)度為18~22的非編碼核糖核苷酸片段,通過(guò)干擾轉(zhuǎn)錄或抑制翻譯過(guò)程來(lái)調(diào)節(jié)靶基因的表達(dá)[43]。盡管miRNAs的數(shù)目在不斷增加,但是只有少數(shù)miRNA具有原癌或抑癌基因的作用,并參與腫瘤的發(fā)病機(jī)制[44]。Cheng等用qPCR的方法在中國(guó)的Ⅰ~Ⅲ期結(jié)直腸癌患者中發(fā)現(xiàn),血漿中高濃度的miR- 141與結(jié)直腸癌患者的遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移相關(guān),但與淋巴結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移無(wú)關(guān)[45]。Wang等用qPCR方法發(fā)現(xiàn),結(jié)直腸癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者外周血中miR- 29a含量高于未發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的患者,該標(biāo)志物對(duì)于區(qū)分肝轉(zhuǎn)移的敏感性達(dá)到75%[46]。
REG- Ⅳ定位于1p13.1- p12,編碼的REG- Ⅳ屬于鈣依賴性凝集素超家族成員及EGFR/Akt/激活蛋白- 1信號(hào)通路的有效激活劑。用qPCR的方法證實(shí),大于70%的結(jié)直腸癌患者體內(nèi)均顯示REG- Ⅳ表達(dá)上調(diào)[47- 48]。Oue等用免疫組化的方法發(fā)現(xiàn),發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的結(jié)直腸癌患者REG- Ⅳ表達(dá)明顯高于未發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的患者,隨后ELISA的方法證實(shí)肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者血清中REG- Ⅳ高于無(wú)肝轉(zhuǎn)移的患者[49]。
上述可在血清中檢測(cè)的新型指標(biāo)還需要更多更大的基礎(chǔ)實(shí)驗(yàn)及臨床實(shí)驗(yàn)的驗(yàn)證才能推廣到臨床,目前在臨床應(yīng)用的廣譜血清指標(biāo)為CEA,雖然它能夠提示腫瘤的發(fā)生,但是缺乏足夠的及時(shí)性與敏感性。
結(jié)直腸癌中最常見(jiàn)的體細(xì)胞突變位于PI3K/RAS- RAF信號(hào)通路中,通過(guò)PIK3CA、KRAS和BRAF基因的突變使得該通路達(dá)到過(guò)度活化的狀態(tài)。這些突變的頻率和熱點(diǎn)在西方結(jié)直腸癌患者中已經(jīng)明確,更多的研究?jī)A向于它們的狀態(tài)與患者對(duì)靶向治療藥物的敏感性及患者預(yù)后的研究。它們與肝轉(zhuǎn)移發(fā)生的負(fù)相關(guān)性只在Bruin 等的研究中被報(bào)道,顯示攜帶有20q擴(kuò)增且無(wú)突變患者肝轉(zhuǎn)移發(fā)生率高達(dá)61%,是其他患者肝轉(zhuǎn)移發(fā)生率的3倍。因此,他們認(rèn)為聯(lián)合檢測(cè)結(jié)直腸癌原發(fā)灶中20q擴(kuò)增和PI3K信號(hào)通路基因突變可以很好地預(yù)測(cè)患者手術(shù)后發(fā)生肝轉(zhuǎn)移的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[50]。與此觀點(diǎn)類似,新近有研究認(rèn)為RAS基因突變能夠預(yù)測(cè)結(jié)直腸癌肺轉(zhuǎn)移的發(fā)生,但不能預(yù)測(cè)肝轉(zhuǎn)移,肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者中KRAS基因的突變頻率低于其在結(jié)直腸癌患者中普遍公認(rèn)的頻率30%~40%,這從側(cè)面說(shuō)明了KRAS突變與肝轉(zhuǎn)移的負(fù)相關(guān)性[51]。
正如基因突變的發(fā)生,表觀遺傳學(xué)指標(biāo)的改變也能推進(jìn)結(jié)直腸癌病程的發(fā)展,在結(jié)直腸癌中研究得最為廣泛的是DNA的異常甲基化,約有20%的結(jié)直腸癌患者表現(xiàn)為CIMP表型[52]。結(jié)直腸癌進(jìn)程中常見(jiàn)的甲基化基因已被歸納總結(jié)[53]。Ju等用焦磷酸測(cè)序方法在53例Ⅰ~Ⅲ期、25例Ⅳ期及62例肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者中發(fā)現(xiàn),超過(guò)80%Ⅳ期及肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者攜帶MGMT甲基化,部分肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者攜帶TIMP3甲基化。CIMP陽(yáng)性的患者出現(xiàn)復(fù)發(fā)及肝轉(zhuǎn)移的時(shí)間要早于CIMP陰性的患者,TIMP3甲基化在肝轉(zhuǎn)移組出現(xiàn)的頻率(15.5%)明顯高于Ⅰ~Ⅲ(3.8%)及Ⅳ期(0%)非肝轉(zhuǎn)移患者。接下來(lái)作者利用MCAM發(fā)現(xiàn)絕大多數(shù)基因在原發(fā)灶和肝轉(zhuǎn)移灶中甲基化狀態(tài)一致,而UPK3A只在轉(zhuǎn)移灶中表現(xiàn)為甲基化狀態(tài),作者認(rèn)為在原發(fā)灶及轉(zhuǎn)移灶表達(dá)不一致的基因才有可能在轉(zhuǎn)移過(guò)程中發(fā)揮作用,所以該基因很有可能參與了肝轉(zhuǎn)移的過(guò)程[54]。
綜上所述,結(jié)直腸癌的肝轉(zhuǎn)移是一個(gè)極為復(fù)雜的生物學(xué)過(guò)程,涉及到了多種遺傳學(xué)及表觀遺傳學(xué)特征的改變,迄今還沒(méi)有完善的評(píng)估指標(biāo)。并且上述提及的預(yù)測(cè)模型只在西方患者中適用,國(guó)內(nèi)尚無(wú)相關(guān)報(bào)道,但研究者們已經(jīng)注意到了結(jié)直腸癌患者中染色體變異情況的普遍性,且20q的擴(kuò)增是最常見(jiàn)的染色體變異之一[55- 57]。在結(jié)直腸癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移這個(gè)多維化的變化過(guò)程中, 我們希望從不同的角度、不同的分子水平來(lái)找到更多與此過(guò)程相關(guān)的信息,最終將這樣的信息轉(zhuǎn)化為臨床檢測(cè)手段,來(lái)為結(jié)直腸癌患者提供更多的治療指導(dǎo)。
[1] ZONG M Z,F(xiàn)ENG M Z,LI J,et al.奧沙利鉑體外干預(yù)結(jié)直腸癌細(xì)胞株HT- 29的耐藥基因及相關(guān)蛋白的表達(dá)[J].現(xiàn)代醫(yī)學(xué),2013,41(2):71- 74.
[2] BEMARDS R,WEINBERG R A.Aprogression puzzle[J].Nature,2002,418(6900):823.
[3] VAN’T VEER L J,DAI H,van de VIJVER M J,et al.Gene expression profiling predicts clinical outcome of breast cancer[J].Nature,2002,415(6871):530- 536.
[4] CARVALHO B,POSTMA C,MONGERA S,et al.Multiple putative oncogenes at the chromosome 20q amplicon contribute to colorectal adenoma to carcinoma progression[J].Gut,2009,58(1):79- 89.
[5] YAMAMOTO S,MIDORIKAWA Y,MORIKAWA T,et al.Identification of chromosomal aberrations of metastatic potential in colorectal carcinoma[J].Genes,Chromosomes & Cancer,2010,49(5):487- 496.
[6] LENGAUER C,KINZLER K W,VOGELSTEIN B.Genetic instability in colorectal cancers[J].Nature,1997,386(6625):623- 627.
[7] CARDOSO J,BOER J,MORREAU H,et al.Expression and genomic profiling of colorectal cancer[J].Biochimica et Biophysica Acta,2007,1775(1):103- 137.
[8] DIEP C B,KLEIVI K,RIBEIRO F R,et al.The order of genetic events associated with colorectal cancer progression inferred from meta- analysis of copy number changes[J].Genes,Chromosomes & Cancer,2006,45(1):31- 41.
[9] BACOLOD M D,BARANY F.Molecular profiling of colon tumors:the search for clinically relevant biomarkers of progression,prognosis,therapeutics,and predisposition[J].Annals of Surgical Oncology,2011,18(13):3694- 3700.
[10] HERMSEN M,POSTMA C,BAAK J,et al.Colorectal adenoma to carcinoma progression follows multiple pathways of chromosomal instability[J].Gastroenterology,2002,123(4):1109- 1119.
[11] WEISS M M,KUIPERS E J,POSTMA C,et al.Genomic profiling of gastric cancer predicts lymph node status and survival[J].Oncogene,2003,22(12):1872- 1879.
[12] RAJAGOPALAN H,NOWAK M A,VOGELSTEIN B,et al.The significance of unstable chromosomes in colorectal cancer.Nature reviews[J].Cancer,2003,3(9):695- 701.
[13] SAYAGUES J M,F(xiàn)ONTANILLO C,ABAD MDEL M,et al.Mapping of genetic abnormalities of primary tumours from metastatic CRC by high- resolution SNP arrays[J].PloS One,2010,5(10):e13752.
[14] BRUIN S C,KLIJN C,LIEFERS G J,et al.Specific genomic aberrations in primary colorectal cancer are associated with liver metastases[J].BMC Cancer,2010,10:662.
[15] NAKAO K,SHIBUSAWA M,ISHIHARA A,et al.Genetic changes in colorectal carcinoma tumors with liver metastases analyzed by comparative genomic hybridization and DNA ploidy[J].Cancer,2001,91(4):721- 726.
[16] HIDAKA S,YASUTAKE T,TAKESHITA H,et al.Differences in 20q13.2 copy number between colorectal cancers with and without liver metastasis[J].Clinical Cancer Research,2000,6(7):2712- 2717.
[17] COOK A,F(xiàn)ERNANDEZ E,LINDNER D,et al.The structure of the nuclear export receptor Cse1 in its cytosolic state reveals a closed conformation incompatible with cargo binding[J].Molecular Cell,2005,18(3):355- 367.
[18] TAI C J,SU T C,JIANG M C,et al.Correlations between cytoplasmic CSE1L in neoplastic colorectal glands and depth of tumor penetration and cancer stage[J].Journal of Translational Medicine,2013,11:29.
[19] KASAHARA M,TAKAHASHI Y,NAGATA T,et al.Thymidylate synthase expression correlates closely with E2F1 expression in colon cancer[J].Clinical Cancer Research,2000,6(7):2707- 2711.
[20] IWAMOTO M,BANERJEE D,MENON L G,et al.Overexpression of E2F- 1 in lung and liver metastases of human colon cancer is associated with gene amplification[J].Cancer Biology & Therapy,2004,3(4):395- 399.
[21] HSU Y H,SHAW C K,CHUONG C M.Immunohistochemical localization of deleted- in- colon- cancer (DCC) protein in human epithelial,neural,and neuro- endocrine tissues in paraffin sections with antigen retrieval[J].The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences,2001,17(7):351- 357.
[22] MIYAKI M,SEKI M,OKAMOTO M,et al.Genetic changes and histopathological types in colorectal tumors from patients with familial adenomatous polyposis[J].Cancer Research,1990,50(22):7166- 7173.
[23] SAITO M,YAMAGUCHI A,GOI T,et al.Expression of DCC protein in colorectal tumors and its relationship to tumor progression and metastasis[J].Oncology,1999,56(2):134- 141.
[24] REYMOND M A,DWORAK O,REMKE S,et al.DCC protein as a predictor of distant metastases after curative surgery for rectal cancer[J].Diseases of the Colon and Rectum,1998,41(6):755- 760.
[25] HELDIN C H,MIYAZONO K,TEN DIJKE P.TGF- beta signalling from cell membrane to nucleus through SMAD proteins[J].Nature,1997,390(6659):465- 471.
[26] LOSI L,BOUZOURENE H,BENHATTAR J.Loss of Smad4 expression predicts liver metastasis in human colorectal cancer[J].Oncology Reports,2007,17(5):1095- 1099.
[27] AI X,WU Y,ZHANG W,et al.Targeting the ERK pathway reduces liver metastasis of Smad4- inactivated colorectal cancer[J].Cancer Biology & Therapy,2013,14(11):1059- 1067.
[28] ZENG Z S,SHU W P,COHEN A M,et al.Matrix metalloproteinase- 7 expression in colorectal cancer liver metastases:evidence for involvement of MMP- 7 activation in human cancer metastases[J].Clinical Cancer Research,2002,8(1):144- 148.
[29] OGAWA M,IKEUCHI K,WATANABE M,et al.Expression of matrix metalloproteinase 7,laminin and type IV collagen- associated liver metastasis in human colorectal cancer:immunohistochemical approach[J].Hepato- gastroenterology,2005,52(63):875- 880.
[30] PRYCZYNICZ A,GRYKO M,NIEWIAROWSKA K,et al.Immunohistochemical expression of MMP- 7 protein and its serum level in colorectal cancer[J].Folia Histochemica et Cytobiologica / Polish Academy of Sciences,Polish Histochemical and Cytochemical Society,2013,51(3):206- 212.
[31] SAHA S,BARDELLI A,BUCKHAULTS P,et al.A phosphatase associated with metastasis of colorectal cancer[J].Science,2001,294(5545):1343- 1346.
[32] BARDELLI A,SAHA S,SAGER J A,et al.PRL- 3 expression in metastatic cancers[J].Clinical Cancer Research,2003,9(15):5607- 5615.
[33] KATO H,SEMBA S,MISKAD U A,et al.High expression of PRL- 3 promotes cancer cell motility and liver metastasis in human colorectal cancer:a predictive molecular marker of metachronous liver and lung metastases[J].Clinical Cancer Research,2004,10(21):7318- 7328.
[34] GUO K,LI J,TANG J P,et al.Catalytic domain of PRL- 3 plays an essential role in tumor metastasis:formation of PRL- 3 tumors inside the blood vessels[J].Cancer Biology & Therapy,2004,3(10):945- 951.
[35] GUAN R J,F(xiàn)ORD H L,F(xiàn)U Y,et al.Drg- 1 as a differentiation- related,putative metastatic suppressor gene in human colon cancer[J].Cancer Research,2000,60(3):749- 755.
[36] LI Q,CHEN H.Transcriptional silencing of N- Myc downstream- regulated gene 1 (NDRG1) in metastatic colon cancer cell line SW620[J].Clinical & Experimental Metastasis,2011,28(2):127- 135.
[37] PARK M,DEAN M,KAUL K,et al.Sequence of MET protooncogene cDNA has features characteristic of the tyrosine kinase family of growth- factor receptors[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,1987,84(18):6379- 6383.
[38] MA P C,MAULIK G,CHRISTENSEN J,et al.c- Met:structure,functions and potential for therapeutic inhibition[J].Cancer Metastasis Reviews,2003,22(4):309- 325.
[39] TRUSOLINO L,COMOGLIO P M.Scatter- factor and semaphorin receptors:cell signalling for invasive growth.Nature reviews[J].Cancer,2002,2(4):289- 300.
[40] BIRCHMEIER C,BIRCHMEIER W,GHERARDI E,et al.Met,metastasis,motility and more.Nature reviews[J].Molecular Cell Biology,2003,4(12):915- 925.
[41] ZENG Z S,WEISER M R,KUNTZ E,et al.c- Met gene amplification is associated with advanced stage colorectal cancer and liver metastases[J].Cancer Letters,2008,265(2):258- 269.
[42] GHADJAR P,COUPLAND S E,NA I K,et al.Chemokine receptor CCR6 expression level and liver metastases in colorectal cancer[J].Journal of Clinical Oncology,2006,24(12):1910- 1916.
[43] BARTEL D P.MicroRNAs:genomics,biogenesis,mechanism,and function[J].Cell,2004,116(2):281- 297.
[44] ESQUELA- KERSCHER A,SLACK F J.Oncomirs- microRNAs with a role in cancer.Nature reviews[J].Cancer,2006,6(4):259- 269.
[45] CHENG H,ZHANG L,COGDELL D E,et al.Circulating plasma MiR- 141 is a novel biomarker for metastatic colon cancer and predicts poor prognosis[J].PloS One,2011,6(3):e17745.
[46] WANG L G,GU J.Serum microRNA- 29a is a promising novel marker for early detection of colorectal liver metastasis[J].Cancer Epidemiology,2012,36(1):e61- 67.
[47] VIOLETTE S,F(xiàn)ESTOR E,PANDREA- VASILE I,et al.Reg Ⅳ,a new member of the regenerating gene family,is overexpressed in colorectal carcinomas [J].International Journal of Cancer,2003,103(2):185- 193.
[48] BISHNUPURI K S,LUO Q,KORZENIK J R,et al.Dysregulation of Reg gene expression occurs early in gastrointestinal tumorigenesis and regulates anti- apoptotic genes[J].Cancer Biology & Therapy,2006,5(12):1714- 1720.
[49] OUE N,KUNIYASU H,NOGUCHI T,et al.Serum concentration of Reg Ⅳ in patients with colorectal cancer:overexpression and high serum levels of Reg Ⅳ are associated with liver metastasis[J].Oncology,2007,72(5- 6):371- 380.
[50] BRUIN S C,HE Y,MIKOLAJEWSKA- HANCLICH I,et al.Molecular alterations associated with liver metastases development in colorectal cancer patients[J].British Journal of Cancer,2011,105(2):281- 287.
[51] VAUTHEY J N,ZIMMITTI G,KOPETZ S E,et al.RAS mutation status predicts survival and patterns of recurrence in patients undergoing hepatectomy for colorectal liver metastases[J].Annals of Surgery,2013,258(4):619- 626; discussion 626- 617.
[52] OGINO S,CANTOR M,KAWASAKI T,et al.CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP) of colorectal cancer is best characterised by quantitative DNA methylation analysis and prospective cohort studies[J].Gut,2006,55(7):1000- 1006.
[53] LAO V V,GRADY W M.Epigenetics and colorectal cancer.Nature reviews[J].Gastroenterology & Hepatology,2011,8(12):686- 700.
[54] JU H X,AN B,OKAMOTO Y,et al.Distinct profiles of epigenetic evolution between colorectal cancers with and without metastasis[J].The American Journal of Pathology,2011,178(4):1835- 1846.
[55] XIAO X Y,ZHOU X Y,YAN G,et al.Chromosomal alteration in Chinese sporadic colorectal carcinomas detected by comparative genomic hybridization[J].Diagnostic molecular pathology:the American Journal of Surgical Pathology,Part B,2007,16(2):96- 103.
[56] CHEN Z,LIU Z,LI W,et al.Chromosomal copy number alterations are associated with tumor response to chemoradiation in locally advanced rectal cancer[J].Genes,Chromosomes & Cancer,2011,50(9):689- 699.
[57] HE Q J,ZENG W F,SHAM J S,et al.Recurrent genetic alterations in 26 colorectal carcinomas and 21 adenomas from Chinese patients[J].Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics,2003,144(2):112- 118.