柴劍虹
斯里蘭卡原名為“錫蘭”,我國古籍中稱其為“師(獅)子國”,今人喻其為“印度洋的眼淚”。研究中外文化交流的一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為斯里蘭卡是海上絲綢之路的重要一站,這誠然不假;但對于法顯、玄奘等通過西域到南亞的西行求法者來說,對于公元5世紀(jì)時已是城中“多薩薄商人”,“諸國商人共市易”(法顯《佛國記》)之地,斯里蘭卡又何嘗不是陸上絲綢之路的一處終點呢?
康提
斯里蘭卡實際上是一個山地島國,古都康提位于首都科倫坡的東北,在斯島的中央地方。
自公元4世紀(jì)釋迦牟尼的佛牙被迎送至此,圣城康提在斯里蘭卡歷史上一直有著極為重要的地位。1592年,斯里蘭卡定都康提,王宮和佛牙寺連接一體,成為國家宗教信仰和行政管理的中心。盡管16、17世紀(jì)錫蘭曾一度被葡萄牙及荷蘭殖民者占領(lǐng),1815年又淪為英國殖民統(tǒng)治,康提依然是斯里蘭卡不屈精神的象征。作為南傳佛教的一處朝覲圣地,這個依山傍湖的小城已經(jīng)被聯(lián)合國教科文組織列入世界文化遺產(chǎn)名錄。
康堤佛牙寺位于人工開掘的康提湖北岸。我國東晉后秦高僧法顯于公元410年巡行師子國時,見“城中又起佛齒精舍,皆七寶作”(《佛國記》),這應(yīng)該是關(guān)于斯里蘭卡佛牙寺最早的文字記載;唐玄奘《大唐西域記》中亦載:“王宮側(cè)有佛牙精舍,高數(shù)百尺,瑩以珠珍,飾之奇寶?!边@則說明7世紀(jì)時佛牙寺已和王宮連為一體。但是康提城始建于14世紀(jì),定都于1592年,法顯、玄奘所見的佛牙寺應(yīng)該是在當(dāng)時的都城阿努拉達(dá)普拉,即今西古城內(nèi),后來隨王宮遷址至康提。
參拜佛牙不允許戴帽穿鞋,拒絕穿短袖衫、短褲、裙子者,也不歡迎穿深色服裝者。車子在離佛牙寺一二百米外的路邊停靠,大家便光著腳步入寺外的大道,先到殿堂外的空地集結(jié)。護城河邊宮墻內(nèi),一座頗具特色的八角形殿亭首先映入眼簾,據(jù)說過去國王常在此接見聚集在殿前空場上的臣民,而且時至今日,國家首腦也仍會在舉辦某種儀式時于此向公眾發(fā)表講話。禮拜佛牙需手持蓮朵,于是有人向大家分發(fā)各色蓮花,各人自行摘去花莖,如系花苞,則將其花瓣一一舒展后,托于掌中。因為觀瞻者甚多,大家魚貫進(jìn)入寺內(nèi)后就擠在殿堂底層耐心等待。供奉佛牙的房間在二樓,為便于禮拜,外有廳堂,內(nèi)設(shè)回廊,供著佛牙的寶龕平時有錦幔遮護。佛祖舍利是釋迦牟尼涅槃后火化所得,據(jù)傳除8.4萬顆真身舍利子外,尚有頂骨、鎖骨、指骨及四顆佛牙舍利等傳世,佛傳中還有“八王爭舍利”故事,化干戈為玉帛之后,佛舍利遂為各國珍藏。我曾瞻拜過北京八大處碧云寺、房山云居寺珍藏的佛舍利和陜西扶風(fēng)法門寺地宮的指骨(影骨)舍利,斯里蘭卡這顆佛牙舍利據(jù)說則是公元317年,南印度羯陵伽國國王戰(zhàn)敗后派其公主將佛牙舍利藏在發(fā)髻中,渡海送給錫蘭國王的。之后,佛牙被錫蘭歷代國王視為鎮(zhèn)國之寶,建寺塔供奉。據(jù)稱,現(xiàn)在的佛牙寺集中了康提時期的各種裝飾材料、裝飾技術(shù)與藝術(shù),堪稱一座藝術(shù)博物館。
丹布拉石窟
著名的丹布拉石窟位于康提以北60公里處一座山巖的斜坡之上,始鑿于公元前1世紀(jì),是斯里蘭卡最早的佛教石窟寺。山下的進(jìn)口廣場邊,矗立著一所新的類似宮殿的三層建筑,名曰Golden Temple,張開大口的獸頭作為大門,三層之上左右兩側(cè)各有八角亭供奉著小型佛塔,正中則是高大的金色結(jié)迦趺坐釋迦牟尼佛像。從殿左沿山坡大道上行約里許,到達(dá)一塊巨巖下端的石窟寺正式入口處外的小廣場,脫鞋存放后,檢票進(jìn)入石窟區(qū)。據(jù)賓度女士介紹,洞窟的始鑿與維拉干王為躲避外敵入侵、尋求神靈庇護有關(guān)。2000多年來,這個石窟最初的形態(tài)沒有太多變化,但歷經(jīng)修建,目前洞內(nèi)的雕塑、壁畫大多是公元13~14世紀(jì)后所作,仍與當(dāng)時的王室關(guān)系密切,幾乎等于是皇家石窟寺。今天丹布拉寺的主體是五個大小及形狀不一、互不相連的洞窟,里面皆有各種造像與壁畫,制作年代并不一致,但均帶有印度原始宗教或南傳佛教錫蘭本地的形象和風(fēng)格。右側(cè)第一個窟內(nèi)有一尊臥佛長約14米,側(cè)臥姿態(tài)與我們在敦煌等地看到的涅槃像不盡相同,特別是佛祖的雙眼圓睜——據(jù)賓度解釋:這符合原始佛典的相關(guān)描述,而如何辨認(rèn)孰為涅槃、孰為入定或安睡?有研究者說要看塑像并攏的雙腳腳趾是否并齊,并齊者為涅槃,不齊者則為入定思維。后來我們看了洞窟內(nèi)幾尊臥佛像,確有此不同特征。東晉法顯所譯《大般涅槃經(jīng)》中敘述:佛祖涅槃前,其大弟子阿難流淚并拍頭高唱:“嗚呼苦哉,世間眼滅!”依此,佛涅槃時應(yīng)當(dāng)閉眼。此經(jīng)中國化的意味甚重,似可作為中國的佛涅槃像閉眼之依據(jù);但竺法念所譯小乘佛典《長阿含經(jīng)》中講阿難默思:“如來未即滅度,世眼未滅?!倍私?jīng)中佛涅槃時所念偈語有云:“難動而取滅,時地則大動。凈眼說諸緣,地動八事動?!边@里的“凈眼”若可解作“睜眼”,則我理解似證明依小乘經(jīng)典,佛涅槃之際仍是睜眼看世間的,爾后則可閉眼。斯里蘭卡學(xué)者的說法是否另有佛典依據(jù),就不得而知了。這里的臥佛身上呈水波紋狀的袈裟也都帶有薄透的質(zhì)感,也就是被中國畫史上稱之為“曹衣出水”者(我以為這可能和中國的家蠶絲織物傳入印度、錫蘭有關(guān))。佛首所枕卻都是繪制精美的蓮心團花高枕,這亦與我們在國內(nèi)所見有別。
丹布拉石窟基本上是利用原有的巖體開鑿,自然采光,所以明暗不一,要仔細(xì)觀瞻里面的雕塑、壁畫還得靠燈燭或手電照射。左側(cè)最大一個洞窟內(nèi),不僅有48座各式塑像,而且還有完整的供人禮拜的早期形態(tài)的佛塔。塑像的形態(tài)、裝飾、著色差異較大,我以為正顯示出南傳佛教的特色及時代的差別。有的佛傳故事畫繪制在洞窟上壁,就得仰頭眥目才能約略辨認(rèn)。我個人覺得這里壁畫的年代相對早于塑像,內(nèi)容、風(fēng)格也較豐富。另外,窟門門楣上浮雕的人物、動物形象也顯示出鮮明的地域風(fēng)格。當(dāng)然時間、條件有限,我又缺乏這方面的專業(yè)知識,也只能是走馬觀花了。我們赤腳走在窟外陽光照射的地面上,望著石窟寺內(nèi)外秀麗的景物,除了腳面的熾熱之外,也感覺到了山巖的堅實與內(nèi)心的充實。
獅子巖
獅子巖是建筑在海拔360米平地上突兀而出的巨大巖體之上的王城與宮殿,山巖高200米,被譽為“世界第八大奇跡”,也已被聯(lián)合國教科文組織列入世界文化遺產(chǎn)名錄。公元477年,摩利耶王朝王子卡西雅帕弒父達(dá)圖塞那一世登基,他為了躲避與防御為父報仇的同父異母弟弟莫加蘭的復(fù)仇,用18年時間修筑此碉堡式城闕,但據(jù)說只使用了七年就因王朝覆滅而湮沒了。過了1000多年,1893年,才由考古學(xué)家重新發(fā)現(xiàn),歷經(jīng)近百年的科學(xué)發(fā)掘、整理,至1982年成為開放游覽的著名世界文化遺跡。正午時分,我們乘車來時,從城區(qū)道路兩旁殘存的墻基可以知道起碼有內(nèi)外兩道城墻,之間也有護城河環(huán)繞。城區(qū)東西間距約3公里,南北間距1公里,我們這次觀覽的重點,則是位于城中心巨大的獅形巖體,尤其是它的洞壁里殘存的公元5世紀(jì)末的色彩斑斕的壁畫。
據(jù)說整座獅子巖原先有500多幅壁畫,現(xiàn)存的只是很少的部分,大概卡西雅帕王朝滅亡時,也遭到了戰(zhàn)火的毀壞。途中,向?qū)葞覀兛戳藘商帋r壁上的壁畫殘跡,然后便到了一架圓筒形盤旋而上的直梯跟前。直梯只容一人登踏,于是一個個頂踵相接而上,這就到了集中觀賞壁畫的狹長巖洞。洞口很窄,如二人同時行進(jìn),就得側(cè)身而過了。殘存的壁畫就繪制在內(nèi)側(cè)桔紅色的巖壁上,因洞窟低矮,壁畫近在眼前,可以看得很清晰。僅存的幾十身人物形象均赤裸上身,上層是姿態(tài)各異的拈花、捧花、散花的天女阿布薩拉,她在印度原始佛教中與乾闥婆同體,在敦煌壁畫中則演變?yōu)榍ё税賾B(tài)的飛天;下層所繪據(jù)說為當(dāng)時宮廷里的嬪妃與侍女形象,也都拿著供養(yǎng)的花枝。最令人稱奇的是,這些1500多年前的繪畫均色彩如新,不但冠飾花鈿、瓔珞項鏈及臂釧等都描繪得精致細(xì)膩,而且人物肌膚質(zhì)感極強,主色調(diào)的赭紅、桔黃色仿佛是剛剛涂敷的;女性“S”形的三道彎體態(tài)特征也很明顯,可證敦煌伎樂天的形態(tài)還是源于南亞樂舞。我想,這些相當(dāng)于我國北魏孝文帝晚期的壁畫,留存至今色彩還如此鮮艷,恐怕主要是得益于當(dāng)時所使用的礦石顏料,尤其是一些稀貴的綠松、黃晶、青金等寶石,同時也與洞窟長期封閉有關(guān)。至于它們當(dāng)初是如何被繪制在峭巖絕壁之上的,就得由考古學(xué)家、美術(shù)家來細(xì)細(xì)推究、論證了。
從壁畫洞窟下來后,要經(jīng)過一處弧形甬道,左側(cè)黃色矮墻上有若隱若現(xiàn)的古代題刻,據(jù)說研究者確定壁畫的繪制年代,有些題刻也是依據(jù)之一。過了甬道,又是向上的石階,奮力上行,我們一行人登上了一個平坦的長方形場地,先休息片刻,順便在考古家發(fā)掘出來的一對巨型獅爪前攝影留念,這獅爪現(xiàn)在成了攀登巖頂入口處的標(biāo)志。大家仰視附著在巖壁上那“之”字形坡度超過30度的金屬梯架,雖未摩拳擦掌,也都鼓足了氣力,體弱者也不言放棄。正式攀爬開始了,盡管只有100多米的垂直高度,一鼓作氣也顯然是行不通的,因為人多路陡,最好是調(diào)理好呼吸與邁步節(jié)奏,走幾十步稍作停頓方不覺疲乏。當(dāng)?shù)貢r間下午4點45分,我終于登上了“獅子的脊背”——巖頂,也是昔日皇宮頂端的遺址。經(jīng)過多年的考古發(fā)掘整理,現(xiàn)在的巖頂是一塊呈長方形的三層臺地,面積約2公頃,據(jù)說是皇宮的空中庭園所在地,有國王寢宮、蓄水池、宴會廳、議事堂等?,F(xiàn)在,除了那一汪依然清澈的池水和斑駁的石制寶座、供桌外,其余都已灰飛煙滅,只剩下些殘基斷礎(chǔ)供人遐想了。
“無限風(fēng)光在險峰”的刺激與興奮,已經(jīng)消退了我們攀登勞累的感覺。我們踏著當(dāng)年卡西雅帕皇宮的廢墟,俯瞰碧野,仰望蒼穹,仿佛穿越時空,看到壁畫上那些天女、嬪妃飄然過來在身邊輕歌曼舞,看到卡西雅帕和他的大臣們在緊張梭巡,看到這座金碧輝煌的宮殿在戰(zhàn)火中轟然倒塌……還能看到些什么呢?善與惡、美與丑、創(chuàng)造與毀滅、微笑與眼淚……城頭變換大王旗,絲路重現(xiàn)繁華景,這就是滄桑變遷,這就是歷史留給后人的記憶、經(jīng)驗、教訓(xùn)與希望。
夕陽悄然隱沒,晚霞消退,暮色漸濃,我們帶著收獲、疑惑與感慨,匆匆從西邊下山,穿過兩側(cè)對稱的花園、蓄水池、渠道遺址,出城后驀然回首,在撲簌模糊的淚眼中,那獅子巖依然巍峨聳立、雄偉挺拔。
西古城祇陀林佛塔
阿努拉達(dá)普拉古城位于斯里蘭卡中北部,距科倫坡206公里,位于斯里蘭卡文化三角地區(qū)的西部,因此被稱為西古城。該城是斯國古佛寺最集中的地方。公元前3世紀(jì)至公元10世紀(jì),錫蘭島一直被阿努拉達(dá)普拉王朝控制,其首都即在西古城地區(qū)。2300多年前,阿育王之子摩哂陀帶領(lǐng)四位比丘渡海傳法至此城,阿努拉達(dá)普拉古城遂成為斯里蘭卡最早的佛教圣地。古城區(qū)通過一個多世紀(jì)以來的發(fā)掘、修繕,現(xiàn)在已成為佛教朝覲中心及旅游勝地?,F(xiàn)存遺址除潘杜卡巴雅國王所筑的內(nèi)城城墻、宮殿遺址外,還有名聞遐邇的佛教圣跡——大菩提樹、銅宮、佛牙寺、無畏山寺、魯溫維利塔等。因為時間關(guān)系,我們只能參觀古城現(xiàn)存最大的佛塔——祇陀林大佛塔。
我對錫蘭早期佛塔所知甚少,只有來到這座祇陀林塔的跟前,才真切體會到“嘆為觀止”這個詞語的含義。高大的磚紅色覆缽型塔身坐落在方形石基之上,缽上有箱形長方體(平頭),安放在上面的塔尖(相輪)直指蒼穹,似乎和中國傳統(tǒng)的天圓地方宇宙觀相接近,而在藍(lán)天的映襯下,又顯現(xiàn)出天地間唯我獨尊的氣勢。此佛塔由公元3世紀(jì)晚期的國王摩訶斯那開始修建,其子摩訶文那完成,前后用時27年,是斯里蘭卡現(xiàn)存最高的佛塔。巍巍大塔給人的第一感覺便是崇高、莊嚴(yán)、靜穆,使僧俗信眾頂禮膜拜時心中升騰起對佛陀、佛法的敬畏;同時,也會由衷地贊美古代佛教建筑藝術(shù)的豐偉,贊嘆古代建筑師的智慧與工匠的辛勞。
我們在順時針繞塔巡禮一圈時,不由地都將注意力集中在覆缽基部那些早期的雕刻上。塔的東、南、西、北正四方底部都建有在巖體基石上用紅磚砌成的凸形九層臺,有側(cè)門通入塔內(nèi)的空間。那些圓雕在石梁上的象形、虎狀獸頭大多已經(jīng)殘損,而臺基兩側(cè)所豎立的石刻卻相對完整。于是,我們又有幸看到了清晰而精美的拈花天女、提壺神女雕像,她們同樣赤裸上身,腿上裹的長褲同樣顯示出薄透的質(zhì)感,雖然比獅子巖的壁畫形象粗壯、質(zhì)樸,卻有著更加嫵媚的三道彎形體特征;我們又看到了整幅為五頭、七頭眼鏡蛇的細(xì)膩刻石,盡管形態(tài)有點駭人,卻似乎比丹布拉石窟的龍形浮雕更為真實,更加生活化;我們也看到了那寶瓶中冒出的花枝里裹著的獅子、狼、大象等動物形象,看到了托舉箱囊的侍女或蹲舉著寶瓶的力士;還有一幅線刻圖,上面流暢生動的鳥獸形象仿佛是天外來客所為……我們剛才在百米外仰望佛塔時,怎么也不會想到在形似粗獷的覆缽底部,會有這么多精美的石刻可以一飽眼福且沁入腦海,令人難以忘卻。
我走下塔基的臺階,仔細(xì)鑒賞一個石柱上的圓形石罐,罐口四周原有的動物雕刻早已殘缺,但環(huán)繞罐肚的五條裝飾線卻完好如初。此罐僅起裝飾作用,還是另有功能,吾所不知。我忽然看見在石柱下有一個小器皿,撿起一看,原來是帶有小嘴的朱紅色的陶碟,擦掉里面的沙土,露出了碟底部黃綠色的沉淀物,聞之有明顯的油味——原來是供佛的一盞小油燈!在巍然佛塔面前,它是那么微小,但一葉知秋,納須彌于芥子,它所蘊含的奧義,卻是求索不盡的。斯國之行,在朦朧迷茫的淚眼中,我們又一次感受了佛教文化的無窮魅力。
Sri Lanka, formerly known as “Ceylon”, was called “Lions Country” in Chinas ancient books, a metaphor referred to the country now called “Indian Oceans tears”. Sri Lanka is, to some scholars who are making researches on the cultural exchanges, an important stop on the maritime Silk Road. But to those people, such as Fa Xian and Xuan Zang, who went to Southern Asia to seek Buddhist sutras through the Western areas, Sri Lanka, already “a market for the businessmen of all countries” in the 5th century, was just one of the terminals on the Silk Road.
Kandy
Sri Lanka is a mountainous island, and the ancient capital, Kandy, is located in the northeast of the capital Colombo, in the center of Sri Lanka Island.
In the 4th century, Buddhas tooth relic was sent there, and from then on, the holy city Kandy became very important in Sri Lankas history. In 1592, Sri Lankan made its capital in Kandy, and the Royal Palace and Sri Dalada Maligawa were connected as one, which became the center of national religion and administration. Although Ceylon was once occupied by the Portuguese and Dutch colonists in the 16th and 17th century, and in 1815 colonized by British, Kandy is still a symbol of indomitable spirit of Sri Lanka. As a pilgrimage shrine of Southern Buddhism, Kandy, which is a small city located between mountains and lakes, has been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Sri Dalada Maligawa in Kandy is located in the northern shore of Kandy Lake that was an artificial lake. When Fa Xian, an eminent monk of Later Qin Kingdom in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, was investigating Sri Lanka in AD 410, he saw “Sri Lanka is building the temple of Buddha tooth, made with seven treasures” (Foguoji), which should be the earliest written records of Sri Dalada Maligawa; Da Tang Xi Yu Ji, written by Xuan Zang, also said: “In one side of the palace, there is a perfect Sri Dalada Maligawa, which is decorated with pearls and priceless treasures, and has a height of several hundred feet.” This told us that Sri Dalada Maligawa and the palace had already been connected together in the 7th century. But Kandy city was founded in the 14th century, and made its capital in 1592, so Sri Dalada Maligawa that Fa Xian and Xuan Zang saw should be in Anuradhapura, now it is located in the west of the ancient city, and later Sri Dalada Maligawa was moved to Kandy together with the palace.
People with T-shirt, shorts, skirts and dark clothing are forbidden to enter the temple, and the entrants should take off their shoes and hats. The cars should be parked in a distance of one to two hundred meters away from the Tooth Relic, and the people will walk barefoot into the road outside the Tooth Relic, and gather together in an open space outside the temple. There is a distinctive octagonal temple pavilion inside the moat wall, where it is said that the king often interviewed the people gathering in front of the temple, but today, the heads of state will also make speech to the public when there is a ceremony. When paying respects to the Tooth Relic, people should hold lotus flowers in hands, and the lotus flowers of different colors are distributed, and everyone plucks stems of the flower. If the lotus flower is a bud, the petals should be stretched one by one, and hold in the palms. Because there are large numbers of worshipers, everyone files into the temple and then crowds in the ground floor of the hall patiently. The tooth relic is on the second floor. Due to the convenience to the worshipers, outside the tooth room there is a hall and inside it are corridors. The box in which the tooth relic was placed is usually shielded by brocades. Buddhas relic is collected from the cremation after Sakyamunis Nirvana. It is said that besides 84,000 Buddhas relics, there are parietal bones, clavicles, phalanges and four teeth relics are handed down from generation to generation. In the biography of Buddha, it is said that “Eight kings fought for the relics”, and after burying the hatchet, the Buddhas relics were treasured up by many countries. I have worshipped the Buddhas relics in Temple of Azure Clouds, in Yunju Temple and the phalanx (shadow bone) relics in Famen Temple in Fufeng, Shaanxi. It is said that the tooth relic in Sri Lanka is the one that in 317AD, after the defeat of the war, the king of Kalinga in South India asked his princess to sent the tooth relic, hiding in her hair ,to the king of Ceylon. After that, the tooth relic was considered as the treasure of the country by the kings of Ceylon, and built a temple to put it in and worship. Allegedly, Sri Dalada Maligawa collected variety of decorative materials, techniques and arts in Kandy period, and now it can be called a museum of art.
絲綢之路2014年13期