陶雪城
(安徽工程大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院,安徽蕪湖241000)
“模糊”一詞最早出現(xiàn)于Zadeh的“模糊集合論(fuzzy set theory)”。他指出,范疇的邊界往往是模糊不清的,范疇與范疇之間存在交叉重疊現(xiàn)象,即事物有可能處在兩個(gè)范疇交界處,在一定程度上同時(shí)隸屬于兩種范疇。[1]而“模糊限制語(yǔ)(hedge)”一詞最早由Lakoff提出,他從邏輯語(yǔ)義學(xué)角度描述了模糊限制語(yǔ),即“使事物變模糊或更不模糊的詞語(yǔ)”[2]。Brown和Levinson則從真值條件出發(fā)定義模糊限制語(yǔ)。他們認(rèn)為,模糊限制語(yǔ)是“在特定條件下能夠部分地改變?cè)捳Z(yǔ)真值程度的分詞或短語(yǔ)”[3]。此后作為一種特殊的語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象,模糊限制語(yǔ)的研究熱度一直不減,國(guó)內(nèi)外許多學(xué)者對(duì)其表現(xiàn)出濃厚的興趣,分別從不同視角對(duì)模糊現(xiàn)象進(jìn)行了廣泛的研究,但模糊限制語(yǔ)在體育新聞?wù)Z域的研究還不多見。體育新聞作為一種特殊體裁有著嚴(yán)格的行文規(guī)范,探索模糊限制語(yǔ)在其中的使用規(guī)律有助于我們更好理解新聞背后的態(tài)度表達(dá)和價(jià)值觀念等。
Prince等把模糊限制語(yǔ)分成近似詞(approximator)(在命題內(nèi)容之間建立模糊關(guān)系的詞)和遁詞(shield)(在說(shuō)話者和命題之間建立模糊關(guān)系的詞)。前者屬于語(yǔ)義范疇,后者屬于語(yǔ)用范疇。按照模糊限制語(yǔ)是否改變命題或話語(yǔ)內(nèi)容可把其分為變動(dòng)型模糊限制語(yǔ)和緩和型模糊限制語(yǔ)。[4]
變動(dòng)型模糊限制語(yǔ)即近似詞,它通過(guò)界定話語(yǔ)變動(dòng)范圍,或者對(duì)話語(yǔ)的真實(shí)性進(jìn)行修正來(lái)改變?cè)捳Z(yǔ)原意,包括程度變動(dòng)語(yǔ)(adaptors)和范圍變動(dòng)語(yǔ)(rounders)。例如 some kind of,somewhat,sort of,a little bit,in a sense 等屬于程度變動(dòng)語(yǔ);about,roughly,approximately,nearly等則屬于范圍變動(dòng)語(yǔ)。
緩和型模糊限制語(yǔ)即遁詞,它不能改變?cè)捳Z(yǔ)的真值條件,但可以使絕對(duì)語(yǔ)氣趨向緩和,說(shuō)話者多使用委婉含蓄的話語(yǔ),盡量避免武斷行為導(dǎo)致的不良后果,體現(xiàn)了禮貌原則。緩和型模糊限制語(yǔ)包括直接緩和語(yǔ)(plausibility shields)和間接緩和語(yǔ)(attribution shields)。其使用形式如主語(yǔ)的類型決定了其是屬于直接緩和語(yǔ)還是間接緩和語(yǔ)。直接緩和語(yǔ)包括與疑問(wèn)相關(guān)的詞語(yǔ),主語(yǔ)多用第一人稱,如I think,as far as I can tell,I believe,I don’t see that等。直接緩和語(yǔ)可以暗示說(shuō)話者做出的論斷是在合理原因的基礎(chǔ)上,而其他人稱作主語(yǔ)或使用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)則多為間接緩和語(yǔ),像according to,presumably,it is commonly known等詞或短語(yǔ),把信息的責(zé)任歸于他人而不是說(shuō)話者本身。
模糊限制語(yǔ)的分類和檢索關(guān)鍵詞見表1。
表1 模糊限制語(yǔ)的分類和檢索詞
此外,Hyland把模糊限制語(yǔ)分成緩和命題內(nèi)容與現(xiàn)實(shí)之間關(guān)系的內(nèi)容導(dǎo)向型模糊限制語(yǔ)(contentoriented hedge)和以讀者為中心,處理讀者與作者之間多維度社會(huì)關(guān)系的讀者導(dǎo)向型模糊限制語(yǔ)(reader-oriented hedge)。[5]163-187內(nèi)容導(dǎo)向型模糊限制語(yǔ)關(guān)注的是命題與非語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)實(shí)的心理表征之間的關(guān)系,可再分為精確導(dǎo)向型模糊限制語(yǔ)(accuracy-oriented hedge)和作者導(dǎo)向型模糊限制語(yǔ)(writer-oriented hedge)。與人際意義相關(guān)的分別是讀者導(dǎo)向型模糊限制語(yǔ)和作者導(dǎo)向型模糊限制語(yǔ)。Hyland的分類法建立在宏觀的語(yǔ)篇層次,而不是僅僅局限在詞匯語(yǔ)法層面。
Jaszczolt[6]和陳林華、李福?。?]根據(jù) Grice[8]的言語(yǔ)交際合作原則,把模糊限制語(yǔ)分為程度類、范圍類、數(shù)量類和方式類。合作原則期待交際雙方遵守真實(shí)、足量、關(guān)聯(lián)和方式等準(zhǔn)則,模糊限制語(yǔ)的使用正是合作原則和四大準(zhǔn)則的積極順應(yīng)。
伍鐵平根據(jù)所修飾詞語(yǔ)的精確性,將模糊限制語(yǔ)分為兩類:一類只能修飾模糊詞,而另一類既能修飾模糊詞又能修飾精確詞。他還根據(jù)是否有上下限將模糊限制語(yǔ)分為三類:一是下限無(wú)明確界限,上限有一定界限;二是上限沒(méi)有明確界限,而下限卻有一定界限;三是上下限都沒(méi)有明確的界限。[9]
根據(jù)模糊詞語(yǔ)的詞性,其主要表現(xiàn)為以下幾種詞匯類型:情態(tài)助動(dòng)詞(如 may,might,could,would,should 等),動(dòng)詞(assume,seem,suggest,indicate,appear,postulate 等),副詞(usually,actually,virtually,generally,slightly,probably,possibly,perhaps,maybe等),形容詞 (somewhat,probable,possible,likely等),名詞(hypothesis,suggestion,possibility 等)和詞組(in a sense,in general,be supposed to,strictly speaking,more or less等)。最為常見的句式是通過(guò)被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)、名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)、從句或者是抽象名詞、代詞等做主語(yǔ)的方式限制作者對(duì)命題的承諾,以達(dá)到在維護(hù)作者自身面子的同時(shí)說(shuō)服讀者的目的。
本文擬采用Prince等的分類方法,把模糊限制語(yǔ)分成變動(dòng)型模糊限制語(yǔ)和緩和型模糊限制語(yǔ)來(lái)分析其在體育新聞中的語(yǔ)用功能。
美國(guó)當(dāng)代英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)COCA(Corpus of Contemporary American English)有4.5億詞次,目前涵蓋美國(guó)1990年至2012年的口語(yǔ)、小說(shuō)、雜志、報(bào)紙和學(xué)術(shù)期刊五大類型的語(yǔ)料,并且提供在線檢索。本文使用的是COCA中報(bào)紙大類下的體育新聞子庫(kù)(1990—2012,總詞數(shù) 14 024 702,以下簡(jiǎn)稱 Newssports子庫(kù)),內(nèi)容包括《芝加哥太陽(yáng)報(bào)》《丹佛郵報(bào)》《休斯敦紀(jì)事報(bào)》《紐約時(shí)報(bào)》《今日美國(guó)》等。使用COCA在線索引工具對(duì)分類表1中的模糊關(guān)鍵詞進(jìn)行檢索,定量定性相結(jié)合,歸納總結(jié)模糊限制語(yǔ)在體育英語(yǔ)新聞中的使用特征和語(yǔ)用功能。
英語(yǔ)體育新聞中的緩和型模糊限制語(yǔ)不能改變?cè)捳Z(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)原義,常常表示話語(yǔ)的內(nèi)容只是個(gè)人觀點(diǎn)(直接緩和語(yǔ))或者第三方觀點(diǎn)(間接緩和語(yǔ)),使得陳述的語(yǔ)氣趨于緩和,易于讀者接受。
1.直接緩和語(yǔ)
直接緩和模糊限制語(yǔ)中的動(dòng)詞多為認(rèn)知性動(dòng)詞,如 think,consider,suppose,guess,believe 等,而主語(yǔ)多是第一人稱,如I,We等,因?yàn)槎喑霈F(xiàn)在直接引語(yǔ)當(dāng)中,口語(yǔ)化特征十分明顯,把話語(yǔ)的責(zé)任攬到說(shuō)話者本人身上,表示話語(yǔ)內(nèi)容僅為個(gè)人觀點(diǎn),讀者可以有不同觀點(diǎn),所以語(yǔ)氣更真誠(chéng),更易于讀者接受。以think為例,在News-sports庫(kù)中I think一共出現(xiàn)了7247次,I thought出現(xiàn)1501次,we think出現(xiàn)236次,we thought出現(xiàn)198次。主語(yǔ)位置上I比we出現(xiàn)次數(shù)更多,而過(guò)去式thought出現(xiàn)次數(shù)明顯比一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)的think少,這也和其多出現(xiàn)在直接引語(yǔ)當(dāng)中有關(guān)。
例 1 I remember a play that happened last year.I think it was in the playoffs.I fouled Jordan out.
例 2 I thought about it for about a year.And thought may be after I was done swimming I would want to do that.I guess what I took away from that was the human body can always achieve more than we believe.
例1是直接引語(yǔ),根據(jù)上下文可知主語(yǔ)是球員羅德曼,他對(duì)事件發(fā)生的時(shí)間不太確定,為了使得語(yǔ)氣不過(guò)于絕對(duì),使用緩和型模糊限制語(yǔ)承認(rèn)這里可能有所誤差,事件也有可能發(fā)生在常規(guī)賽。例2中同時(shí)使用了thought,guess和believe三個(gè)表達(dá)模糊概念的認(rèn)知?jiǎng)釉~和模糊情態(tài)動(dòng)詞maybe和would,使整個(gè)句子呈現(xiàn)出很強(qiáng)的不確定性。
believe一共出現(xiàn)3024次,第一人稱作主語(yǔ)的情況也十分常見,I believe出現(xiàn)456次,I believed出現(xiàn)35次,we believe出現(xiàn)88次,we believed出現(xiàn)11次,過(guò)去式的出現(xiàn)次數(shù)也非常少。如例3,模糊謂詞believe加情態(tài)模糊詞should,說(shuō)話者很委婉地表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn),即在賽場(chǎng)上關(guān)鍵時(shí)刻的判罰應(yīng)該有復(fù)議來(lái)判斷球是否已經(jīng)出界。suppose出現(xiàn)的次數(shù)比較少,一共才出現(xiàn)了93次,I suppose出現(xiàn)了62次,且多數(shù)出現(xiàn)在人物引語(yǔ)中。
例3 I believe some critical point on the field should be subject to some kind of review,whether it's a camera at the goal line to about crossing the plane or one at the sideline to cover out of bounds.
例4 We selected extremely young children who we believed had the ability to become strong gymnasts if you gave them good,long periods of development,"Martha said.
例5 I suppose other players have tried it but just couldn't do it.Kobe could actually visualize it.
2.間接緩和語(yǔ)
間接緩和語(yǔ)多以非第一人稱作主語(yǔ)或使用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu),主語(yǔ)位置上第三代詞it比較常見,例如it is said that,it is reported that等,把話語(yǔ)責(zé)任歸于第三方,說(shuō)明話語(yǔ)內(nèi)容是有理有據(jù)的,增強(qiáng)客觀性和可信度,同時(shí)保護(hù)自己免受不必要的質(zhì)疑。但研究發(fā)現(xiàn),體育新聞庫(kù)中的情況并非如此。檢索發(fā)現(xiàn)it is(was)said出現(xiàn)29次,it is(was)said that在庫(kù)中僅僅出現(xiàn)4次,頻次非常低;it is(was)reported在庫(kù)中一共出現(xiàn)了120次,在新聞報(bào)紙類下出現(xiàn)了11次,頻次也極低;而it is(was)believed在庫(kù)中一共出現(xiàn)了22次。這說(shuō)明模糊結(jié)構(gòu) it is(was)said,it is(was)reported和it is(was)believed在體育新聞中并不常用。
例6 And it is said the zone will stifle the individual creativity that made the NBA the game to watch in the 1980s and'90s.
例7 It was said that his success was because of his master mechanic and crew chief Ray Evernham,the real hands-on talent in the operation.
例8 It is believed that Hamilton tried to persuade Wizards officials to hire his three assistants at Miami in some capacity,but no guarantees were made.
it seems出現(xiàn)684次,it seemed出現(xiàn)362次,其中it seems+that出現(xiàn)42次,it seems(ed)+adj出現(xiàn)120次,it seems as if出現(xiàn)16次,相比較News-sports子庫(kù)的庫(kù)容,這三種結(jié)構(gòu)的頻次還是偏低。
例 9 True enough.Now,even though three weeks remain-the Braves have 18 games left and the Giants 20-it seems as if San Francisco has the insurmountable task.
例10 Hostetler was taken to the Hospital for Special Surgery in New York in Manhattan,and it seems unlikely he will be able to play Thanksgiving Day against the Cowboys in Dallas.
例 11 At the outset of the free agent season,it seemed certain that Rodriguez would sign with either the New York Mets,Los Angeles Dodgers or Atlanta Braves——teams in big markets with rich cable contracts.
英語(yǔ)體育新聞中的變動(dòng)型模糊限制語(yǔ)通過(guò)話語(yǔ)內(nèi)容范圍和程度上的修飾,為了交際目的,多少改變了話語(yǔ)原意,避免語(yǔ)氣過(guò)于絕對(duì),使得新聞內(nèi)容語(yǔ)義上更精確,語(yǔ)用上更客觀可信。
1.程度變動(dòng)語(yǔ)(adaptors)
Lakoff認(rèn)為,模糊限制語(yǔ)能夠讓語(yǔ)言更清晰,程度、數(shù)量范圍等方面的伸縮性把一些接近正確但又不能確定完全正確的話語(yǔ)表達(dá)得得體一些,避免過(guò)于武斷。[2]在 COCA 中 kind of出現(xiàn)3611次,sort of出現(xiàn)791次,在表示多少有點(diǎn)的時(shí)候多用于人物的直接引語(yǔ)當(dāng)中,如例12。在例13中,除了kind of之外還同時(shí)使用了a little bit和very等表達(dá)程度的模糊語(yǔ),以及表達(dá)范圍的模糊語(yǔ)some。在范圍和程度上的修飾使得整句話顯示出極強(qiáng)的模糊性,說(shuō)明說(shuō)話者本人對(duì)于話語(yǔ)內(nèi)容的信心不足,同時(shí)也是對(duì)命題內(nèi)容的精確化,句中說(shuō)話者推測(cè)對(duì)方有點(diǎn)無(wú)語(yǔ),但對(duì)話雙方并非沒(méi)有交談,只是談得少,只有一點(diǎn)點(diǎn),a little bit在這里起到了精確話語(yǔ)內(nèi)容的語(yǔ)用功效。例14是對(duì)人物引語(yǔ)的直接評(píng)論,即球員Durant的話多少有點(diǎn)含糊不清,拐彎抹角,什么才是對(duì)他最好的選擇,他并沒(méi)有做出進(jìn)一步的解釋。
例12 he was caught drinking on the job and was fired."I'm kind of glad they caught me,"he said.
例 13 I think he was kind of speechless.We just talked a little bit.Gave him some advice.He was just kind of taking it all in.He was very grateful and humble at the same time.
例 14"I'm going to do what is best for me,"Durant said,somewhat obliquely.
a little bit在 News-sports子庫(kù)中一共出現(xiàn)了4277次,使用在人物引語(yǔ)中的情況十分常見,如例15。例16同時(shí)用到了程度模糊詞kind of和a little,definitely肯定了Faried對(duì)球隊(duì)的作用,他確實(shí)為隊(duì)友提高了比賽水平,但我們多少有點(diǎn)被慣壞了,因?yàn)槲覀儠?huì)期待他比其他隊(duì)的大個(gè)子打得更好,即搶更多的籃板。與a little意思接近的slightly出現(xiàn)的次數(shù)相對(duì)較少,為427次,如例17,隨著Jamaal的離去,丹佛野馬隊(duì)在主攻方面會(huì)顯示出稍微不同的方法,即進(jìn)攻方法會(huì)有所改變,但不會(huì)是根本性的。
例 15"I've been fortunate to be around a lot of quality coaches and I'd say I've got a little bit of all of them in me,"he said.
例16 He raises the level of a game and definitely does it for his teammates.We've kind of gotten a little spoiled.We expect him to outwork the other team 's bigs.
例 17 With Jamaal Charles not playing,the Broncos will see a slightly different approach from the Chiefs on offense.
2.范圍變動(dòng)語(yǔ)(rounders)
范圍變動(dòng)語(yǔ)是指限制語(yǔ)義變動(dòng)范圍的詞和短語(yǔ),例如just,only,nearly等詞語(yǔ),可以使得語(yǔ)義范圍更精確,語(yǔ)言表達(dá)更加具體,更符合實(shí)際情況,避免夸大不實(shí),除非使用的是新穎的修辭手段。just一詞在News-sports子庫(kù)中出現(xiàn)了24234次,表達(dá)僅僅、只不過(guò)的意思十分普遍。如例18同時(shí)使用了范圍變動(dòng)語(yǔ)just和程度變動(dòng)語(yǔ)largely,火箭隊(duì)本月透露前20場(chǎng)比賽僅僅贏了4場(chǎng),而這個(gè)糟糕的結(jié)果主要是由于冬季時(shí)所做出的一系列決定導(dǎo)致的。這里only對(duì)數(shù)量范圍作了限定,凸顯隊(duì)伍糟糕的表現(xiàn),同時(shí)largely在程度上作了修飾,對(duì)現(xiàn)狀的原因給予分析。例19使用了just和briefly兩個(gè)范圍限制語(yǔ),強(qiáng)調(diào)說(shuō)明Osweiler非常年輕,只有21歲,而Jack作為新生已經(jīng)短暫地打了四分衛(wèi)。這里并沒(méi)有具體告訴讀者Jack打了多久的四分衛(wèi),因?yàn)榫渥訌?qiáng)調(diào)的重點(diǎn)是Jack打了四分衛(wèi),至于多久并不重要。
例 18 The Rockies unraveled this month,winning just four of their first20 games,a result largely of decisions made over the winter.
例19 Osweiler is just21 and a one-year starter at Arizona State,where John Elway 's son Jack played quarterback briefly as a freshman
nearly一詞在New-sports子庫(kù)中出現(xiàn)了2377次,多數(shù)是對(duì)數(shù)字范圍的限制,在數(shù)量上進(jìn)行精確化。如例20,在將近30年的種族隔離制度后,南非運(yùn)動(dòng)員邁向國(guó)際賽場(chǎng)的希望有了新的春天。這里按實(shí)際推算種族隔離并沒(méi)有30年,而對(duì)南非運(yùn)動(dòng)員來(lái)說(shuō),種族隔離制度實(shí)在是太久了,讀者也會(huì)產(chǎn)生共鳴,起到情感渲染的作用,即在這么多年后南非運(yùn)動(dòng)員終于有機(jī)會(huì)回到國(guó)際賽場(chǎng)實(shí)在是不容易。在例21中,離Andy Murray站在亞瑟阿什球場(chǎng)舉起大滿貫獎(jiǎng)杯已經(jīng)快兩年的時(shí)間了,回憶起當(dāng)年的場(chǎng)景時(shí)感慨時(shí)間飛逝,同樣起到情感渲染的作用。
例20 South African athletes have a new spring in their step at the prospect of returning to international sports after nearly three decades of isolation under a-partheid rule.
例21 It has been nearly two years since Andy Murray stood on Arthur As he Stadium on a windy Monday night in early September and hoisted his first Grand Slam trophy.
體育新聞是一種特殊的語(yǔ)篇體裁,在描述新聞事件的同時(shí)還會(huì)適當(dāng)表達(dá)作者的觀點(diǎn)和態(tài)度,模糊限制語(yǔ)對(duì)新聞事件本身的表述和作者情感態(tài)度的表達(dá)可以進(jìn)行一定程度的限制和修飾,在不同的新聞?wù)Z境中的使用會(huì)有不同的語(yǔ)用功能。緩和型模糊限制語(yǔ)可以使語(yǔ)氣更為緩和,態(tài)度更委婉禮貌,增加體育英語(yǔ)新聞話語(yǔ)的客觀性和可信度;而變動(dòng)型模糊限制語(yǔ)可根據(jù)語(yǔ)境改變語(yǔ)義內(nèi)容的真值程度,使語(yǔ)義表達(dá)更加模糊或者更加精確,有些變動(dòng)型模糊語(yǔ)還能起到情感渲染的作用,引起讀者共鳴,達(dá)到恰當(dāng)?shù)慕浑H目的。研究還發(fā)現(xiàn),在體育新聞中模糊限制語(yǔ)多出現(xiàn)在人物引語(yǔ)當(dāng)中,使得模糊限制語(yǔ)的使用呈現(xiàn)出很強(qiáng)的口語(yǔ)化特征,這與體育新聞?wù)Z體特征有關(guān),為了使得新聞內(nèi)容更加真實(shí)可信,會(huì)適當(dāng)穿插人物的引語(yǔ)。綜上,模糊性是語(yǔ)言的本質(zhì)屬性,而恰當(dāng)使用模糊限制語(yǔ)能夠在體育新聞中起到積極的語(yǔ)用效果。
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