韋周全, 陸施毅, 趙霏, 李友邦, 3
(1. 廣西師范大學(xué)生命科學(xué)學(xué)院,廣西桂林541006; 2. 南京林業(yè)大學(xué)生物與環(huán)境學(xué)院,南京210037;3. 廣西珍稀瀕危動物生態(tài)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,廣西師范大學(xué),廣西桂林541004)
亞洲葉猴社會行為學(xué)研究進(jìn)展
韋周全1, 陸施毅2, 趙霏1, 李友邦1, 3
(1. 廣西師范大學(xué)生命科學(xué)學(xué)院,廣西桂林541006; 2. 南京林業(yè)大學(xué)生物與環(huán)境學(xué)院,南京210037;3. 廣西珍稀瀕危動物生態(tài)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,廣西師范大學(xué),廣西桂林541004)
葉猴以群居為主,個體間具有豐富的社會行為,包括相互理毛行為、等級關(guān)系、繁殖行為、殺嬰行為和玩耍行為等。本文查閱了葉猴屬Presbytis、烏葉猴屬Trachypithecus和長尾葉猴屬Semnopithecus社會行為的相關(guān)文獻(xiàn),綜述社會行為所涉及的假說,分析葉猴個體間和猴群間社會行為的作用和功能,為今后國內(nèi)葉猴或其他靈長類的研究提供參考和借鑒。
亞洲葉猴;葉猴屬;烏葉猴屬;長尾葉猴屬;社會行為
葉猴隸屬于猴科Cercopithecidae疣猴亞科Colobinae,為亞洲特有,包括葉猴屬Presbytis、烏葉猴屬Trachypithecus和長尾葉猴屬Semnopithecus,共3屬45種(Roosetal.,2014)。葉猴以群居為主,社群結(jié)構(gòu)包括一雄多雌、多雄多雌和全雄群3種(黃乘明等,1996)。葉猴的社會行為可劃分為2個層次,即個體間社會行為和群體間社會行為。葉猴的社群結(jié)構(gòu)和社會行為與其他非人靈長類相比有其特殊的一面。本文對涉及葉猴社會行為研究進(jìn)展的相關(guān)假說進(jìn)行了總結(jié),為今后同類物種的研究提供參考。
1.1 相互理毛行為
葉猴的理毛行為(grooming)可分為相互理毛行為(allogrooming)和自我理毛行為(autogrooming)(Hutchins & Barash,1976;Dunbar,1991)。自我理毛行為是個體對自己的毛發(fā)進(jìn)行梳理,有時從毛發(fā)中撿出小顆粒放進(jìn)嘴咀嚼或用嘴咬食;相互理毛行為是個體間進(jìn)行毛發(fā)梳理,并不時地從分開的毛發(fā)或露出的皮膚上撿出小顆粒放到嘴中咀嚼或直接用嘴咬食(Pérez & Vea,1998)。目前關(guān)于葉猴相互理毛行為的功能有3種假說:第一種假說是衛(wèi)生功能假說(hygienic functional hypothesis),該假說認(rèn)為相互理毛行為具有清潔毛發(fā)、除去皮膚寄生物和防止感染的功能(Barton,1985;Borries,1992;Borriesetal.,1994)。許多研究表明相互理毛行為主要發(fā)生在個體無法或難以自我理毛的部位,如尾基部、背部和頭等部位,對長尾葉猴S.entellus(Borries,1992;Borriesetal.,1994;Koenig & Borries,2001)、黑葉猴T.francoisi(胡艷玲,2003;周岐海等,2006)和戴帽葉猴T.pileatus(Kumar & Solanki,2014a)等的研究有力地支持了衛(wèi)生功能假說;而Borries(1992)認(rèn)為長尾葉猴的相互理毛行為是對無法自我理毛的一種補(bǔ)償,這實(shí)際上也是衛(wèi)生功能假說的進(jìn)一步深化。第二種假說是緩和功能假說(distensive functional hypothesis),該假說認(rèn)為不同個體間的相互理毛行為被認(rèn)為能減少潛在攻擊或消除被理毛者的抵觸情緒,緩解個體間的緊張氛圍,使之趨向緩和(Terry,1970)。在對長尾葉猴和白頭葉猴T.leucocephalus的研究中得到證據(jù)(McKenna,1978;張穎溢等,2001)。第三種假說是鄧巴種群凝聚假說(Dunber’s group-cohesion hypothesis),該假說認(rèn)為相互理毛行為的時間與種群大小呈正相關(guān),相互理毛行為不僅對社群成員間的凝聚力具有重要的作用,而且影響種群擴(kuò)散和社群性比(Dunbar,1991;Lehmannetal.,2007)。對葉猴相互理毛的時間分析發(fā)現(xiàn)葉猴需要通過高比值的相互理毛行為時間來保持社群成員間的凝聚力,相互理毛行為的時間比值是否影響社群大小和種群擴(kuò)散模型仍需進(jìn)一步的驗(yàn)證(Matsudaetal.,2015)。此外,一些研究還發(fā)現(xiàn)相互理毛行為影響繁殖行為,如長尾葉猴(Nikolei & Borries,1997)和戴帽葉猴(Islam & Husain,1982;Kumar & Solanki,2014a)在交配前,雌性常對雄性進(jìn)行理毛,而且戴帽葉猴的相互理毛行為中有21%回合發(fā)生在肛門-生殖區(qū)(Kumar & Solanki,2014a)。
1.2 等級關(guān)系
等級關(guān)系(dominance)普遍存在于群居的非人靈長類中(Maslow,1936;Rowell,1974)。等級序位高的個體在享用資源和交配權(quán)中占有優(yōu)勢(趙海濤等,2011)。靈長類個體間的等級關(guān)系不僅有利于減少打斗和傷亡,保持社群穩(wěn)定,而且能使弱者得到社群保護(hù)(李宏群等,2004)。在葉猴中,等級主要通過2種方式來判別,第一種方式是個體間的取代行為,即原來占據(jù)優(yōu)勢資源的個體被趕走并被取代,或是被其他個體趨近后短時間內(nèi)主動讓出原占有資源,通過計(jì)算個體間的取代矩陣來判別等級(張穎溢等,2001;Luetal.,2013)。在長尾葉猴(Koenig,2000;Alametal.,2015)和托馬斯葉猴P.thomasi(Sterck & Steenbeek,1997)中,取代行為常發(fā)生在取食、占據(jù)食物斑塊和空間位置等時;一些取代行為則發(fā)生在相互理毛行為(張穎溢等,2001)和性行為(Borriesetal.,1991;張穎溢等,2001;Tiwaryetal.,2012;Alametal.,2015)等社會行為中。第二種方式是個體間的攻擊-屈服行為,這是個體競爭資源能力最直接的體現(xiàn),通過計(jì)算個體間在資源競爭過程中攻擊-屈服矩陣來判定(Koenigetal.,2004)。戴帽葉猴(Stanford,1991b)、黑葉猴(胡艷玲,2003)和菲氏葉猴T.phayrei(Koenigetal.,2004)個體間的攻擊行為主要發(fā)生在食物出現(xiàn)時或飼喂時間段。雖然全雄群的社群成員組成較為松散,個體間的等級關(guān)系不明顯(Mohnot,1984),但是首領(lǐng)猴通常領(lǐng)導(dǎo)猴群的活動,特別在入侵兩性群時,首領(lǐng)猴會第一個移動(Minhasetal.,2010)。
1.3 繁殖行為
繁殖行為(reproduction behavior)是哺乳動物社會行為的重要組成部分,在葉猴兩性群中,成年雌、雄個體會通過不同的行為來獲得自身繁殖的成功。成年雄性會驅(qū)趕群內(nèi)即將性成熟的亞成年雄性(Rajpurohitetal.,1995),在雄性替換后,新主雄也有類似的行為,甚至?xí)?qū)趕群內(nèi)所有其他的雄性個體(Rajpurohit & Sommer,1993);與懷孕的雌性相比,雄性與未懷孕可生育的雌性交配比例更高(Ostneretal.,2006);而一些研究則認(rèn)為雄性在選擇交配對象時偏好等級高個體而不是未懷孕的個體(Tiwaryetal.,2012);成年雌性在發(fā)情期會對成年雄性進(jìn)行邀配,這可能與群內(nèi)成年雄性數(shù)量少有關(guān),而邀配行為可提高雌性懷孕的概率,在銀色烏葉猴T.cristatus(Bernstein,1968)、紫面葉猴S.vetulus(Rudran,1973)、長尾葉猴(Hrdy,1980;Alametal.,2015)、黑葉猴(梅渠年等,1987)和戴帽葉猴(Solankietal.,2007)中均得到證實(shí)。
雄性葉猴用更多的時間和精力與雌性交配,撫育后代則主要由雌性完成(Jay,1963; Hrdy,1980)。母猴對新生嬰猴初期具有照顧、哺乳、攜帶和監(jiān)督的作用(Poirier,1968;Hrdy,1980;Dolhinow & DeMay,1982;Rajpurohit,1997;黃乘明等,1998;Zhaoetal.,2009;Kumar & Solanki,2014b),之后則是教授后代辨別食物、熟悉家域和訓(xùn)練技能等(Fairbanks,1990;Zhaoetal.,2009)。社群內(nèi)非母親成年或亞成年雌性參與撫育幼仔的行為稱為阿姨行為或擬母親行為(allomothering)(Horwich & Manski,1975;Fairbanks,1990)。在葉猴中關(guān)于阿姨行為的社會功能有3種假說:第一種是聯(lián)盟形成假說(the alliance formation hypothesis)(Hrdy,1976),該假說認(rèn)為阿姨行為能促進(jìn)其他雌性與幼仔母親的社會聯(lián)系,有利于提高行為發(fā)起者的等級,是雌性間的一種生殖合作(Hrdy,1976;Stanford,1992;Kumar & Solanki,2014b)。戴帽葉猴的阿姨行為使哺乳的雌性有更多的休息和取食時間(Stanford,1992),也有利于剛生育的母猴恢復(fù)體力(Kumaretal.,2005);雌性長尾葉猴間的嬰猴轉(zhuǎn)移行為可幫助母猴攜帶嬰猴通過一些危險(xiǎn)的地方(Minhasetal.,2010)。第二種假說是學(xué)習(xí)做母親假說(the learning-to-mother hypothesis)(Hrdy,1980),該假說認(rèn)為雌性在參與撫育幼仔的過程中可增加育幼經(jīng)驗(yàn),提高其將來成為母親時育幼的成功率。在黑葉猴(胡艷玲等,2005)和白頭葉猴(Jinetal.,2015)中無生育經(jīng)驗(yàn)的雌性有更多的阿姨行為。第三種假說是嬰猴受益假說(the infant benefit hypothesis)(Chism,2000),該假說認(rèn)為表面上看實(shí)施阿姨行為的個體是一種利他行為,對實(shí)施阿姨行為的個體是純損耗性的,但對嬰猴而言,阿姨行為會增加對其的保護(hù)和照顧,有利于提高其成活率(Quiatt,1979;Dolhinow & DeMay,1982;Chism,2000)。
1.4 殺嬰行為
殺嬰行為(infanticide)是導(dǎo)致同種類幼仔或胎兒在短時間內(nèi)死亡的行為(Hrdy & Hausfater,1984)。關(guān)于葉猴的殺嬰行為,目前可歸納為3種假說:一是雄性繁殖策略假說(male reproductive hypothesis);二是減少資源競爭假說(reduce resource competition hyothesis);三是病態(tài)行為假說(pathological behavior hypothesis)。雄性繁殖策略假說認(rèn)為雄性殺嬰后,失去幼崽的雌性會提前進(jìn)入發(fā)情狀態(tài),隨之與其交配,縮短雌性生殖間隔,使雌性懷上其后代,有利于自身繁殖的成功,是目前靈長類殺嬰行為的最重要解釋(Hrdy,1974,1979)。在長尾葉猴(Maslow,1936;Sugiyama,1965;Sommer & Mohnot,1985;Newton,1986;Stanford,1991a;Rajpurohitetal.,2003; Sharmaetal.,2010)、紫面葉猴(Rudran,1973)、銀色烏葉猴(Wolf & Fleagle,1977;Wolf,1980)、白頭葉猴(Zhaoetal.,2011;Yinetal.,2013)、黑葉猴(Zhouetal.,2013)和約翰葉猴S.johnii(Kavanaetal.,2014)等葉猴中均得到證實(shí),殺嬰是新主雄強(qiáng)烈的性沖動和迫切與雌性交配的結(jié)果(Maslow,1936),在長尾葉猴中有70%的雌性在失去嬰猴8個月之后會有新的嬰猴出生,剛好超過一個懷孕期(6.5個月)(Hrdy,1974)。減少資源競爭假說認(rèn)為殺嬰會減少潛在的競爭者,增加殺嬰者和其后代對資源的獲取,殺嬰是種群密度過高的結(jié)果(Rudran,1973)。如長尾葉猴新主雄會攻擊年齡較大的幼猴(Agoramoorthy,1994;Sharmaetal.,2010)。但該假說不能解釋一些新主雄只攻擊嬰猴而不攻擊年長的幼猴或亞成年猴(Rajpurohitetal.,2003)和發(fā)生在資源相對豐富地區(qū)的殺嬰行為(Sharmaetal.,2010)。病態(tài)行為假說認(rèn)為殺嬰是由于擁擠、人為干擾等因素引起雄性脾氣暴躁、行為病態(tài),從而傷及嬰猴(Boggess,1979;張鵬,2011)。相對雄性而言,雌性對后代的生殖和撫養(yǎng)投入更多的時間和精力,殺嬰明顯對雌性不利,為了減少殺嬰行為,雌性采取的措施有:(1)積極發(fā)情與新雄性交配(Hrdy,1979)。一些懷孕的雌性頻繁與新主雄交配,并出現(xiàn)提前流產(chǎn)的現(xiàn)象(Agoramoorthyetal.,1988);(2)遷移。如雌性帶著嬰猴離開社群或在群外圍活動(Zhouetal.,2013);未懷孕的雌性遷移到雄性能力更強(qiáng)的兩性群,提高雄性對后代的保護(hù)能力(Wich & Sterck,2007);雌性通過遷移使種群數(shù)量適中,減少雄性的替換(Steenbeek & van Schaik,2001);(3)混淆父子關(guān)系(van Schaiketal.,2004)。在多雄多雌群中殺嬰的比率要低于一雄多雌群,這可能和雌性與群內(nèi)所有成年雄性交配有關(guān)(Borriesetal.,1999);通過對一群多雄多雌社群中長尾葉猴子代DNA分析發(fā)現(xiàn),有超過21%基因?yàn)榉侨簝?nèi)雄性的基因,說明雌性還與群外雄性交配來混淆父子關(guān)系,減少了雄性取代后的殺嬰行為(Launhardtetal.,2001);(4)加強(qiáng)對嬰兒的保護(hù)。在栗紅葉猴P.rubicunda(Davies,1987)和托馬斯葉猴(Steenbeek,1999)中,當(dāng)兩性群雄性替換之后,帶嬰猴的雌性會提高對新主雄的警戒,避免其傷害嬰猴。
1.5 玩耍行為
玩耍行為(play behavior)是指由2個或多個個體共同參與的一種相互玩耍行為,個體間的行為相互影響(Jiang,2004),該行為在靈長類中表現(xiàn)尤為明顯(Baldwin & Baldwin,1973)。玩耍行為常發(fā)生在嬰猴和亞成年猴階段,一般形式是打斗、逃跑和追逐(Pellis & Pellis,1998)。目前解釋葉猴玩耍行為的假說是運(yùn)動-訓(xùn)練假說(sports-training hypothesis),該假說認(rèn)為玩耍是一種肢體活動,能提高個體身體協(xié)調(diào)性,增強(qiáng)體能,實(shí)踐和提升運(yùn)動、打斗和捕食等技巧(Byers & Walker,1995)。對長尾葉猴(Minhasetal.,2010)、金頭葉猴T.poliocephalus(Schneideretal.,2010)、黑葉猴(江峽,2010;黎大勇等,2013)和暗色葉猴T.obscurus(Karimullahetal.,2014)的研究均符合該假說;長尾葉猴(Minhasetal.,2010)和黑葉猴(黎大勇等,2013)中的雄性個體間有更多的打斗玩耍行為。棲息地質(zhì)量影響著嬰猴的玩耍行為,生活在高質(zhì)量棲息地的雄性長尾葉猴與生活在貧瘠棲息地的相比,前者的玩耍頻次為后者的6~7倍,內(nèi)容更加豐富;隨著雨季來臨,食物種類的增加,后者的玩耍頻次也隨之大幅增加(Sommer & Mendoza-Granados,1995);在同一地域中,棲息地為城市的長尾葉猴與棲息地為農(nóng)村的相比,前者的玩耍頻次更高(Alametal.,2015)。幼猴的玩耍行為受到母猴的限制,如銀色烏葉猴(Amarasingheetal.,2009)和長尾葉猴(Minhasetal.,2010)。
2.1 猴群間的沖突行為
葉猴的社群具有一定的家域性,在重疊地區(qū)猴群可能會相遇,在相遇初期常通過聲音、視覺等信號進(jìn)行警告(Poirier,1968),而一些成年雄性則會大聲吼叫,如長尾葉猴和約翰葉猴(Hohmann,1989),雄性的叫聲有利于減少與臨近社群雄性的沖突(Wichetal.,2002)。若相互警告無效后,猴群間就會發(fā)生沖突。目前關(guān)于猴群間的沖突行為有幾種假說,第一種假說是保衛(wèi)配偶假說(mate resource defence hypothesis),該假說認(rèn)為兩性群中的雄性為了保護(hù)和占有群內(nèi)的雌性,會攻擊嘗試與群內(nèi)雌性交配的入侵成年雄性(David & Ehlers,2014),并控制群內(nèi)雌性使其不遷移到其他猴群(Stanford,1991a)。而離開兩性群的雄性為了提高入侵兩性群的成功率,會通過組群的方式組成全雄群(Hrdy,1980)。在全雄群入侵時,不僅全雄群某個個體向兩性群主雄發(fā)起進(jìn)攻,而且全雄群所有個體會集體入侵,當(dāng)雄性替換成功時,新主雄由全雄群中等級最高的雄性擔(dān)任(Ostneretal.,2006)。在戴帽葉猴(Stanford,1991b)、托馬斯葉猴(Steenbeek,1999;Steenbeeketal.,1999)、長尾葉猴(Rajpurohitetal.,2003)、菲氏葉猴(Koenig & Borries,2012)和栗紅葉猴(David & Ehlers,2014)中均得到證實(shí)。一些學(xué)者通過雄性間的打斗是否發(fā)生在其家域的核域部分,認(rèn)為雄性對雌性的保護(hù)也是間接保衛(wèi)食物(David & Ehlers,2014),這實(shí)際上也是保衛(wèi)配偶假說的進(jìn)一步探討。第二種假說是保衛(wèi)食物資源假說(food resource defence hypothesis),該假說認(rèn)為兩性群主雄為了保衛(wèi)現(xiàn)有食物資源攻擊其他入侵其家域的雄性,保護(hù)領(lǐng)域資源供群內(nèi)雌性和后代使用(Sterck & Steenbeek,1997;David & Ehlers,2014)。同時,葉猴群間為了減少遭遇,還有第三種假說,即威脅-水平假說(threat-level hypothesis)。該假說認(rèn)為鄰居或陌生者可能會與資源擁有者競爭,對領(lǐng)地的擁有程度反應(yīng)了其威脅水平,更強(qiáng)的個體也意味著擁有更大的領(lǐng)地(Temeles,1994;Müller & Manser,2007)。如菲氏葉猴雄性獨(dú)猴減少在兩性群家域邊緣活動來避免與該群主雄發(fā)生沖突(Gibson & Koenig,2012)。
亞洲有45種葉猴,在一些物種中開展了長達(dá)幾十年的積累研究(Borriesetal.,1991),葉猴的社會行為研究取得了引人注目的成果,在相互理毛行為(Borries,1992;Borriesetal.,1994)、等級關(guān)系(Borriesetal.,1991)、殺嬰行為(Hrdy,1974,1979)和猴群間關(guān)系(David & Ehlers,2014)等方面的研究已經(jīng)成為靈長類社會行為研究的重要組成部分,并形成了有價值的假說;國內(nèi)葉猴分布點(diǎn)的確定(江海聲等,1991;王應(yīng)祥等,1999; Lietal.,2007)、物種的有效保護(hù)(黃乘明等,1998)和一些科研基地的建設(shè)(張穎溢等,2001;Zhouetal.,2013)都為研究葉猴社會行為提供了堅(jiān)實(shí)基礎(chǔ),我國在葉猴的社會行為研究也取得了重要的成果(張穎溢等,2001;胡艷玲,2003;Zhaoetal.,2011;黎大勇等,2013;Yinetal.,2013;Zhouetal.,2013;Alametal.,2015)。隨著部分為解釋葉猴社會行為而提出的假說在更多非人靈長類物種中得到驗(yàn)證,加強(qiáng)對葉猴社會行為的研究將有助于提高人們對非人靈長類社會行為的理解。
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Process in the Study on Social Behavior of Asian Leaf Monkeys
WEI Zhouquan1, LU Shiyi2, ZHAO Fei1, LI Youbang1, 3
(1. College of Life Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 541006, China;2. College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; 3. Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 541004, China)
Asian leaf monkeys, including generaPresbytis,TrachypithecusandSemnopithecus, are generally gregarious animals. Leaf monkeys have complex social behaviors, which have long been concerned. On the basis of previous relevant hypothesizes, this article summarized the process in the study on social behaviors of Asian leaf monkeys, including allogrooming, dominance, reproduction, infanticide and play. The current review provided primatologist with references for future study on social behaviors of leaf monkeys or other primates in China.
Asian leaf monkeys;Presbytis;Trachypithecus;Semnopithecus; social behavior
2016-01-08 接受日期:2016-05-11 基金項(xiàng)目:國家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(31460568)
韋周全(1992—), 男, 碩士研究生, 主要從事靈長類生態(tài)學(xué)研究, E-mail:eco_2014wzq@163.com
*通信作者Corresponding author, E-mail:lyb_2001@126.com
10.11984/j.issn.1000-7083.20160012
Q959.8
A
1000-7083(2016)04-0632-06