Abstract：The dowry is one of the major cultural features in Chinese marriage customs. This research is based on several interviews with students from different areas of China. Despite regional differences， dowry of these places does share some similarities. It is found that the basic connotations of dowry， such as its relationship with females role in a new home， remain the same though various regional traditions have endowed it with colorful meanings. Also， with social and economic development， dowry plays a more important role in maintaining and improving social relations.

Key words：dowry；regions；connotations；social functions

1. Introduction

Dowry is found， of various forms， in all the major cultures in China. “A womans dowry is the money and goods which， in some cultures， her family gives to the man that she marries”， citing from Collins COBUILD English Dictionary. In terms of the definition， it is doubted whether the dowry results from the daughters family possessions or it is given to the son-in-law directly. Jack Goody has mentioned in his book Kinshipthat dowry is a kind of anticipated inheritance whereby the bride receives her “l(fā)ot” or portion of the familial estate at her marriage while Diao Tongju， a Chinese expert on Folklore， believes that dowry is not a way of inheritance for the bride who should be closely linked with marriage. Despite its true essence， dowry has experienced great changes across regions in its sources， quantities， types and so on. Its value and symbolic meanings also have changed due to social and economic development.

2. Major diversities of dowry

Dowry is diversified as a result of， for instance， regional differences and varied living standards. Its chronic development has witnessed either a weakening or a growing trend in different parts of China. Also in different periods， dowry has seen great changes in quantity， quality， style and even processing method. From interviews with classmates of different native places， findings concentrate on the following aspects.

2.1 Sources

The constituents of dowry vary largely due to distinct customs. Generally， there are three major sources of dowry， the brides family， the betrothal gifts from the bridegroom and the brides own savings. In respect of the first， it has become a universal phenomenon that when a family wants to marry off the daughter， certain possessions will be given to her as a marriage payment for betrothal gifts. Parts of them become the second source. This portion is called by Jack Goody as “indirect dowry”. Yan Yunxiang mentioned it in his book that economic factors largely contribute to the “flow” of gifts to dowry. As for the third source， a growing number of females have become independent economically， so they do not need to let their parents pay for them.

2.2 Quantity

The quantity of dowry is the most obvious difference. There are several motivations for this kind of variation： conventional fixation， family calculation and economic development. Firstly， in some places of China， brides families are more particular about their daughters dowry. A friend from Inner Mongolia has provided a list of dowries， which includes not only common items mentioned before， but also certain number of farm livestock such as cattle and sheep. Another student from the middle part of Anhui Province shocks us with the little attention paid to the quantity of dowries. Their neighbors only prepare some bedding necessities. Secondly， the quantity of that part of dowry taken from the betrothal gifts varies from one to another. In most country-sides， the dowry is often used for the sons marriage of the brides family.

2.3 Categories

In many cases， material goods are solely included in dowry. Most of the interviewees agree on such possessions as furniture， jewels and bedding articles. However， there are certain exceptions which are closely linked to regional characteristics. For instance， a classmate from a county in southern part of Fujian says the brides family should pick dozens of cobblestones， symbolizing “smoothness” for the couple. Flourishing economy also witnesses its effect on marriage endowments. Dowry has experienced changes with improving living standards. In certain wealthy families， even cars or houses are included.

3. Differences in connotation

Marriage seems to be a very sacred moment in all cultures. Dowry， no matter colorful or ordinary， is sure to carry certain connotations for the celebration of the unique occasion.

3.1 Traditional dowry—women duty at home

By communicating with friends from different parts of China， I found that traditional dowry occupies a very important position in marriage. Diao has taken “cabinet” as an example. The pronunciation of its Chinese meaning is homophonic of Chinese character “貴”， which means being very rich or authoritative.

Beddings， the most common form of dowry， together with longans or peanuts， hold the implication that women are expected to continue the family line.

Tools， such as sewing machine or electric iron， also find their place in dowry. They are closely related to housework in a family.

Baby products sometimes appear in dowry. A friend from north Shanxi where spinning is very famous says that baby clothing of high quality， not only from the brides parents but also her relatives， is often taken as presents.

Though people may come from different ethnic groups， they have almost the same wish for their daughters and Chinese culture has endowed certain things with the same connotation， such as the color “red” with the meaning of jubilation.

3.2 “Specialties”—unique meanings

Any gregarious group is distinct from each other by its special living habits and customs which thus fill marriage with colorfulness.For example， In Fuding， a city located on north Fujian province， calamus， a kind of plant growing in water sides， is used to symbolize “eternality”. In some parts of Inner Mongolian， the Mongolian robes， sort of ethnic costume， are presented to the bride at the wedding day with her mothers love and expectation.

4. Social functions

Radcliffe-Brown mentioned in his book Bride and Bridewealth that “Marriage is a compact between two bodies of persons， the kin of the woman who agree to wed their daughter to the man and his kinsmen who pledge themselves that terms of the agreement will be carried out”. Dowry in this sense contributes to this “agreement” to some degree. Yan mentions Marriage Payment Theory and Marriage Endowment Theory so as to explain the reasonableness in the existence of and betrothal gifts dowry. Since peoples living standard has been improving， changes of dowry are with various motivations.

4.1 Dowry as marriage payment

Traditionally， the brides family is paid by the bridegroom with betrothal gifts for marrying the girl who is supposed to be part of a new family. When Diao reviews the theories about dowry， she mentions “welfare”. The value of dowry determines the “value” of the bride in the new family.

Dowry is also seen as a compensation for the betrothal gifts. Families， no matter rich or poor， would like to maintain a good relationship with relatives through marriage. In kinship， Jack Goody believes that if the marriage payment and counter-payment are equal or approximately equal in value， they may regard this as an exchange of gifts to establish a good relationship between the two families.

4.2 Dowry as marriage endowment

Regardless of the real owner of the dowry， it flows into the new family. In Lu Yaos book The Ordinary World， Sun Shaoan， the hero， benefits a lot from his wife Xiulians dowry. Yan also mentions this in his book that wealth for the bride is one of the major ways to fund the new couple， because the bridegroom do not have any family fortune before they divide up the family property and live apart.

4.3 Dowry as a way of inheritance

Dowry inheritance could be analyzed in two different senses， one from the stance of men and the other from that of women.

As mentioned above， the dowry goes into the new family. Undoubtedly， this amount of fortune has changed its nature from the bridegrooms kin to his wife and also to himself. As a result， marriage exchange is no longer a mere circulation of gifts， but a way to distribute from one generation to the next.

Traditionally， women dont have the right to inherit anything from her family. Nevertheless， there are two exceptions. For indirect dowry， men， together with his wife， are the ultimate beneficiary， while for direct dowry which is given all by the brides family； the fortune is transmitted directly to the young woman. This usually happens on two conditions. One is that parents do not have male successors. Another exception is much due to economic development. Since peoples livihood has improved， they have enough resources to bring up their children. Men and women tend to gain equal access to their family fortune. However， women have very little chance to inherit anything from her family. So， parents will turn her part of fortune into dowry which is easily accepted by others.

4.4 Dowry as a way to improve social status

In this sense， not only is the brides family socially measured， but also the girls social position is strengthened. The new relationship established through marriage is an important social resource. Dowry is a way to show a familys financial resource which is then be measured publicly under the occasion of marriage. It is given not for economic sense， but for maintaining or promoting social status. Besides， dowry is seen as a necessary face-saving strategy.

Friedl says that dowry has long served as a means of upward social mobility for girls. As what is said before， the value of the dowry is approximately matched by her own “value”. Therefore， its quantity will be the yardstick taken by bridegrooms kin to judge her family status. Moreover， a large quantity of dowry will enhance a brides influence in the new family.

5. Conclusion

By interviewing students from different regions in China， this study concentrates on dowry as an important part in marriage customs. Dowry has experienced great changes in many aspects， such as its sources， quantity and categories. And the motivations behind are diversified mainly including three subjects， the bride， the brides family and the bridegroom. It is revealed that dowry is not only about love and wish for daughters， but contains the brides family intention to show their own status and improve their daughters position in the new family. Besides， the case for indirect dowry shows another clue for family inheritance. To conclude， regional difference as well as social and economic change mainly account for variation in dowry.

【References】

[1] Goody， Jack. Kinship：Selected Readings （1st edition） [M]. Penguin Books Ltd， 1971.

[2] Diao Tongju. Research on the Diversity of Origin and Symbol of Dowry[J]. Ethnic. Study in Guangxi， 2007（1）：61-8.

[3] Yunxiang Yan. The Flow of Gifts： Reciprocity and Social Networks in a Chinese Village [M]. Stanford University Press， 1996.

[4] A.R.Radcliffe-Brown. Dowry and Bridewealth[A]. In A.R.Radcliffe-Brown and D.Forde（Eds.）. African System of Kinship and Marriage[C]. Oxford University Press for the International African Institute， 1950：1-85.

[5] Diao Tongju. Dowry and Betrothal Gifts：A Review of Relevant Theories[J]. Journal of Shandong University， 2007（2）：155-160.

[6] E.Friedl， Vasilika. Dowry， Inheritance and Land Tenure[A]. In E.Friedl， Vasilika. A Village In Modern Greece[C]. Holt， Rinehart & Winston， 1962：64-8.

【作者簡介】

李寶龍（1991—），男，河南鞏義人，廈門大學(xué)外文學(xué)院碩士研究生在讀，主要研究方向：英語翻譯。