楊學(xué)軍 海龍 于圣平
惡性膠質(zhì)瘤是最常見的原發(fā)性中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)腫瘤,是難治性和預(yù)后極差的腫瘤之一。以惡性程度最高、侵襲性最強(qiáng)的膠質(zhì)母細(xì)胞瘤為例,若患者僅接受支持治療,中位生存期不足3個(gè)月,1年內(nèi)病死率達(dá)97%[1]。近10余年來,在微創(chuàng)理念和影像導(dǎo)引外科新技術(shù)的支持下,惡性膠質(zhì)瘤影像學(xué)全切除率提高,術(shù)后病殘率和病死率下降;各種改良的綜合治療措施和新的治療方法為膠質(zhì)母細(xì)胞瘤的治療帶來曙光,但仍僅有限延長患者中位生存期[2?4]。腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)并向多個(gè)腦葉侵襲播散將最終導(dǎo)致病情持續(xù)惡化。惡性膠質(zhì)瘤雖然具有高侵襲性,但極罕見血行轉(zhuǎn)移至中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)外,侵襲和播散主要發(fā)生于腦和脊髓,因此,惡性膠質(zhì)瘤是僅累及中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的腫瘤。如果能夠有效抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞的侵襲和遷移,則可能轉(zhuǎn)變其為局部發(fā)生、局部復(fù)發(fā)、局部控制的慢性病變。我國國民經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)發(fā)展第十二個(gè)五年規(guī)劃(以下簡(jiǎn)稱“十二五”)時(shí)期,天津醫(yī)科大學(xué)總醫(yī)院楊學(xué)軍教授研究團(tuán)體在國家自然科學(xué)基金、教育部高等學(xué)校博士學(xué)科點(diǎn)專項(xiàng)科研基金和天津市應(yīng)用基礎(chǔ)及前沿技術(shù)研究計(jì)劃資助下,聚焦惡性膠質(zhì)瘤侵襲播散的生物學(xué)行為,本文擬就上述研究成果進(jìn)行簡(jiǎn)要綜述。
侵襲和遷移是惡性膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞最基本的生物學(xué)行為之一。盡管體外實(shí)驗(yàn)可以觀察和研究膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞的侵襲和遷移能力,但在體內(nèi)和組織標(biāo)本上進(jìn)行研究仍較為困難,難以在體內(nèi)動(dòng)態(tài)追蹤腫瘤細(xì)胞的遷移過程,也無法從常規(guī)染色的靜態(tài)組織切片中回答腫瘤內(nèi)具有運(yùn)動(dòng)能力的細(xì)胞為何、如何分布、何種細(xì)胞遷移、遷移方向?yàn)楹蔚葐栴},鑒于此,我們?cè)诩?xì)胞劃痕實(shí)驗(yàn)、細(xì)胞成球?qū)嶒?yàn)、Transwell小室模型基礎(chǔ)上,建立水凝膠三維細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)[5?6]、腦片培養(yǎng)[7?8]等體外補(bǔ)充實(shí)驗(yàn)平臺(tái),以及以研究侵襲遷移為目的的體內(nèi)實(shí)驗(yàn)平臺(tái),并完善一系列免疫組織化學(xué)染色和熒光染色方法。
從病理學(xué)角度已知惡性膠質(zhì)瘤的組織學(xué)形態(tài)為,腫瘤細(xì)胞高度間變,有絲分裂活躍,呈假“柵欄”樣圍繞壞死區(qū)并簇集在腫瘤微血管周圍,向周圍白質(zhì)浸潤,血管增殖和(或)壞死。我們課題組對(duì)人膠質(zhì)瘤和大鼠原位種植膠質(zhì)瘤進(jìn)行腫瘤中心組織、邊緣組織和周圍浸潤組織系列取材,并通過CD133或巢蛋白(Nes)標(biāo)記膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞(GSCs)、CD34標(biāo)記腫瘤內(nèi)和腫瘤周圍血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞,結(jié)果顯示,CD133和巢蛋白陽性細(xì)胞在腫瘤內(nèi)的表達(dá)并非彌漫性均勻分布,而呈簇狀分布;腫瘤壞死區(qū)周圍的假“柵欄”樣結(jié)構(gòu)主要由膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞組成,圍繞腫瘤微血管的假“菊形團(tuán)”樣結(jié)構(gòu)亦主要由膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞組成,惡性膠質(zhì)瘤向周圍白質(zhì)浸潤區(qū)也可見較密集的膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞[9?11];膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞集中分布于腫瘤壞死區(qū)周圍、微血管周圍和腫瘤邊緣浸潤部位,分別稱為缺氧區(qū)小生境(niche)、微血管旁小生境和侵襲性小生境[12]。膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞的上述分布特點(diǎn)提示其與惡性膠質(zhì)瘤的組織病理學(xué)特征和侵襲遷移的生物學(xué)行為密切相關(guān)。我們課題組進(jìn)一步探討,在腫瘤中心和邊緣組織向周圍白質(zhì)遷移的路徑中,何種細(xì)胞具有較強(qiáng)的運(yùn)動(dòng)能力或正在遷移?結(jié)果顯示,hMena蛋白和Ras相關(guān)C3肉毒素底物1(Rac1)是肌動(dòng)蛋白聚合和片狀偽足形成過程中的必需蛋白質(zhì),僅表達(dá)于細(xì)胞運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí),是遷移中腫瘤細(xì)胞的可靠標(biāo)志物[13?16];缺氧區(qū)小生境、微血管旁小生境和侵襲性小生境等膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞聚集區(qū)域,也是遷移的腫瘤細(xì)胞的聚集區(qū)域,CD133與Rac1雙重?zé)晒馊旧@示,約83%的CD133陽性細(xì)胞表達(dá)Rac1蛋白,提示膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞具有較強(qiáng)的遷移能力[16?17]。
在腦組織切片中判斷腫瘤細(xì)胞運(yùn)動(dòng)方向是一項(xiàng)難題。體外實(shí)驗(yàn)中,片狀偽足的伸出方向可以指示腫瘤細(xì)胞的運(yùn)動(dòng)方向,而在腦組織切片中,腫瘤細(xì)胞密度高且相互擠壓,無法分辨出片狀偽足的伸出方向。高爾基體作為微管形成中心在細(xì)胞極性維持和細(xì)胞遷移過程中發(fā)揮重要作用。研究顯示,高爾基體位于胞核前120°扇形范圍內(nèi),可以參考指示細(xì)胞運(yùn)動(dòng)方向[18]。我們課題組發(fā)現(xiàn),腫瘤壞死區(qū)周圍聚集的腫瘤細(xì)胞內(nèi),高爾基體多位于胞核背向壞死區(qū)一側(cè),提示多數(shù)細(xì)胞在“逃離”壞死小生境;而白質(zhì)纖維束中遷移的腫瘤細(xì)胞內(nèi),高爾基體和胞核連線與白質(zhì)纖維束走行方向基本平行[19]。
我們課題組采用鏡像切片技術(shù)和神經(jīng)纖維染色方法,在大鼠原位膠質(zhì)母細(xì)胞瘤模型中發(fā)現(xiàn),膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞沿白質(zhì)纖維束縱行方向遷移并聚集于微血管旁,提示腫瘤細(xì)胞在白質(zhì)內(nèi)的播散很可能以自一個(gè)微血管旁小生境至另一個(gè)微血管旁小生境的接力方式,自腫瘤周圍向遠(yuǎn)隔白質(zhì)播散[11]。膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞是如何聚集到微血管旁小生境,又如何在白質(zhì)纖維束中遷移至下一個(gè)微血管旁小生境?與膠質(zhì)瘤侵襲表型相關(guān)的因素中,趨化因子系統(tǒng)引起越來越廣泛的關(guān)注,尤其是CXCL12/CXCR4軸。我們課題組發(fā)現(xiàn),腫瘤血管周圍聚集CXCR4陽性細(xì)胞,而血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞表達(dá)CXCL12;CXCR4可能是膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞標(biāo)志物,相對(duì)于CD133陰性細(xì)胞,CXCR4在CD133陽性膠質(zhì)母細(xì)胞瘤細(xì)胞中呈高表達(dá)(未發(fā)表),提示腫瘤微血管可能通過CXCL12/CXCR4軸介導(dǎo)腫瘤細(xì)胞的趨化分布,膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞主要參與其中。CXCL12/CXCR4軸與膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞侵襲遷移的關(guān)聯(lián)性還表現(xiàn)在,CXCL12/CXCR4軸具有激活基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶?9(MMP?9)、Rac1蛋白、Arg蛋白的作用[16,20?21],并通過磷脂酰肌醇 3?激酶(PI3K)/絲氨酸/蘇氨酸激酶(AKT)信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路與Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的相互作用進(jìn)一步影響膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞的侵襲能力[22]。
我們課題組在惡性膠質(zhì)瘤侵襲遷移的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),腫瘤邊緣血管旁大量腫瘤細(xì)胞聚集并具有較高的增殖指數(shù),腫瘤細(xì)胞在向周圍正常腦組織浸潤擴(kuò)散過程中在微血管旁聚集并增殖,表明腫瘤細(xì)胞的運(yùn)動(dòng)態(tài)與增殖態(tài)之間存在相互轉(zhuǎn)換(未發(fā)表)。早在 1996年 Giese等[23]即提出腫瘤細(xì)胞“go or grow”假說,如果腫瘤細(xì)胞所處局部微環(huán)境(酸性環(huán)境、可利用的營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)減少、缺氧等)不利于腫瘤細(xì)胞增殖,則腫瘤細(xì)胞遷移至適宜生存和增殖的環(huán)境。微小 RNA?451(miRNA?451)是一種內(nèi)源性非編碼RNA,通過激活腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)以調(diào)控Rac1蛋白和哺乳動(dòng)物雷帕霉素靶蛋白C1(mTORC1)活性,進(jìn)而影響膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞遷移和增殖能力。我們課題組的體外實(shí)驗(yàn)顯示,miRNA?451作為表觀遺傳學(xué)調(diào)控機(jī)制,在腫瘤細(xì)胞遷移運(yùn)動(dòng)表型與增殖表型轉(zhuǎn)換中起到“開關(guān)”作用[24]。進(jìn)一步研究顯示,若微環(huán)境適宜因素或其他誘導(dǎo)因子使miRNA?451表達(dá)上調(diào),惡性膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞則通過減少腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶激活以解除或減弱其對(duì)哺乳動(dòng)物雷帕霉素靶蛋白C1活性的抑制作用,進(jìn)而促進(jìn)細(xì)胞增殖;相反,若在缺氧、低能量或有其他生長抑制因子的微環(huán)境中,惡性膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞miRNA?451呈低表達(dá),則促進(jìn)腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶磷酸化,激活細(xì)胞運(yùn)動(dòng)相關(guān)蛋白R(shí)ac1,進(jìn)而使膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞具有更強(qiáng)的遷移能力,“逃離”小生境,發(fā)生遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移[25]。
Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路對(duì)膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞干性表型的維持起關(guān)鍵作用。Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路配體和受體均為細(xì)胞表面跨膜蛋白,細(xì)胞表面Notch配體結(jié)合鄰近細(xì)胞表面Notch受體并活化受體細(xì)胞Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路,稱為反式活化(trans?interaction);同一細(xì)胞表面的Notch配體與受體胞外域也可以發(fā)生相互作用,阻止受體接受來自其他細(xì)胞的配體信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo),從而產(chǎn)生對(duì)受體的抑制作用,稱為順式抑制(cis?inhibition)。膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞干性表型的維持需Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的高度活化,而該通路特點(diǎn)決定膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞高表達(dá)Notch受體、低表達(dá)Notch配體。膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞如何維持這種Notch受體表達(dá)優(yōu)勢(shì)的狀態(tài)?解整合素?金屬蛋白酶12(ADAM12)是解整合素?金屬蛋白酶家族成員,具有金屬蛋白酶和解整合素等多種功能,我們課題組通過促進(jìn)Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路配體DLL1胞外域脫落以解除自身受體順式抑制對(duì)Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性拮抗作用,進(jìn)而促進(jìn)Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路激活[26]。Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路維持膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞干性表型需配體DLL1的激活,更重要的是,肌動(dòng)蛋白骨架參與配體依賴性Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的激活,后者的傳統(tǒng)激活形式需配體細(xì)胞與受體細(xì)胞相互接觸。我們課題組發(fā)現(xiàn),Notch配體細(xì)胞與受體細(xì)胞在CXCL12/CXCR4軸的作用下侵襲遷移相互靠近時(shí),膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞侵襲和遷移調(diào)節(jié)信號(hào)因子ArpC亦參與DLL1自胞質(zhì) 至 胞 膜 的 囊 泡 運(yùn) 輸[27?28],從 而 確 保 DLL1 激 活Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的功能[29]。惡性膠質(zhì)瘤是一類異質(zhì)性很強(qiáng)的腫瘤,許多抑制Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的靶向藥物失敗的最大原因是未選擇適宜的患者,我們課題組采用腫瘤基因組學(xué)圖譜計(jì)劃(TCGA)和中國腦膠質(zhì)瘤基因組學(xué)圖譜計(jì)劃(CGGA)進(jìn)行大樣本研究,結(jié)果顯示,Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路在前神經(jīng)元亞型和經(jīng)典亞型中呈高表達(dá),而這兩種亞型呈現(xiàn)祖細(xì)胞狀態(tài);進(jìn)一步研究發(fā)現(xiàn),Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路與核因子?κB(NF?κB)高度相關(guān),體內(nèi)外實(shí)驗(yàn)亦證實(shí)Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路直接調(diào)節(jié)核因子?κB表達(dá)變化,影響膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞的侵襲遷移,從而為Notch信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路靶向治療從基礎(chǔ)向臨床轉(zhuǎn)化提供方向(未發(fā)表)。
腫瘤進(jìn)展過程中,膠質(zhì)瘤干細(xì)胞與微環(huán)境相互作用,形成缺氧區(qū)小生境、微血管旁小生境和侵襲性小生境,無論何種類型腫瘤微環(huán)境均存在不同程度的缺氧和營養(yǎng)匱乏,誘導(dǎo)腫瘤細(xì)胞糖酵解增加,產(chǎn)生大量H+和乳酸,使細(xì)胞排出的H+和乳酸代償性增加,從而導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞內(nèi)堿化,加之腫瘤微環(huán)境的低灌注使細(xì)胞外微環(huán)境H+和乳酸無法有效清除,造成酸性細(xì)胞外微環(huán)境和堿性細(xì)胞內(nèi)微環(huán)境。酸性細(xì)胞外微環(huán)境有利于腫瘤侵襲遷移,鈉氫交換蛋白1(NHE1)是腫瘤細(xì)胞外微環(huán)境酸化的主要調(diào)節(jié)因子。鈉氫交換蛋白1激活使胞質(zhì)體積縮小,允許細(xì)胞擠過狹窄的細(xì)胞外間隙,同時(shí),鈉氫交換蛋白1激活為腫瘤細(xì)胞提供酸性微環(huán)境,有利于基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶(MMPs)及其他蛋白水解酶降解細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)(ECM),從而促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞侵襲遷移[30]。
腫瘤細(xì)胞在細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)中的侵襲遷移是多種細(xì)胞內(nèi)外信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路與細(xì)胞內(nèi)骨架蛋白在時(shí)間和空間上精確整合的結(jié)果,可以分解為4個(gè)獨(dú)立步驟:(1)細(xì)胞前緣片狀偽足形成和延伸,涉及肌動(dòng)蛋白的聚合。(2)新的局部黏附復(fù)合物形成。(3)肌動(dòng)蛋白?肌球蛋白復(fù)合物介導(dǎo)的細(xì)胞體收縮。(4)細(xì)胞尾部黏著斑解離[31]。其中,第(2)和(4)步中的細(xì)胞前緣黏著斑形成與尾部黏著斑解離過程,稱為黏著斑周轉(zhuǎn)(focal adhesion turnover),而鈣離子作為細(xì)胞內(nèi)第二信使,介導(dǎo)多種信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路,參與細(xì)胞的黏著斑周轉(zhuǎn)。鈣池調(diào)控性鈣內(nèi)流(SOCE)由基質(zhì)相互作用因子1(STIM1)與鈣釋放激活鈣通道蛋白1(Orai1)介導(dǎo),是細(xì)胞內(nèi)鈣離子的重要來源途徑之一。遷移細(xì)胞中鈣離子的分布具有顯著特征:鈣離子在細(xì)胞內(nèi)不同部位呈現(xiàn)穩(wěn)定而瞬時(shí)的濃度梯度變化:從遷移頭部至尾部逐漸升高,而在細(xì)胞遷移頭部又存在散在的鈣離子內(nèi)流引起的局部濃度升高,稱為“鈣火花”。我們課題組的研究顯示,SOCE通過調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞黏著斑周轉(zhuǎn)的速度和上皮間質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)化(EMT)樣改變,參與惡性膠質(zhì)瘤的侵襲遷移[32?34]。
惡性膠質(zhì)瘤靶向治療領(lǐng)域,貝伐單抗是唯一通過Ⅲ期臨床試驗(yàn)的藥物,但在臨床實(shí)踐中,貝伐單抗通過耗竭血管內(nèi)皮生長因子(VEGF)而抑制腫瘤血管形成的同時(shí),卻促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞向周圍白質(zhì)浸潤播散。唯一靶向于惡性膠質(zhì)瘤侵襲的整合素抑制劑——西侖吉肽,臨床試驗(yàn)以失敗而遺憾告終[35],提示在腫瘤精準(zhǔn)治療理念盛行的今天,針對(duì)腫瘤細(xì)胞微環(huán)境和細(xì)胞內(nèi)信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路設(shè)計(jì)的靶向治療,不應(yīng)以增加惡性膠質(zhì)瘤的侵襲遷移能力為代價(jià);惡性膠質(zhì)瘤侵襲遷移的關(guān)鍵信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路和治療靶點(diǎn)仍需優(yōu)化設(shè)計(jì)。惡性膠質(zhì)瘤侵襲遷移研究仍是我們課題組目前和未來的研究重點(diǎn)。
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