李 文,吳衛(wèi)東
(新鄉(xiāng)醫(yī)學(xué)院公共衛(wèi)生學(xué)院 河南省空氣污染健康效應(yīng)與干預(yù)國(guó)際聯(lián)合實(shí)驗(yàn)室,河南 新鄉(xiāng) 453003)
中國(guó)的大氣污染已經(jīng)從上世紀(jì)煤煙型污染演變?yōu)閰^(qū)域性、復(fù)合型污染。近年來(lái),以空氣中細(xì)顆粒物(PM2.5)水平嚴(yán)重超標(biāo)為特征的霧霾污染正呈持續(xù)加劇之勢(shì)。PM2.5是空氣動(dòng)力學(xué)直徑≤2.5μm的懸浮細(xì)顆粒物,高濃度PM2.5是霧霾的主要成因。我國(guó)PM2.5高排放與產(chǎn)業(yè)和能源結(jié)構(gòu)不合理、城市化進(jìn)程加速以及汽車(chē)保有量快速上升等因素有關(guān),因此,治理PM2.5污染將是一項(xiàng)長(zhǎng)期而困難的工作。PM2.5比表面積大,易攜帶大量有毒有害物質(zhì),可經(jīng)呼吸道進(jìn)入人體肺部深處及血液循環(huán),對(duì)人體產(chǎn)生較大危害,粒徑較小的球形顆粒甚至可以進(jìn)入腦部神經(jīng)元、膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞[1]。因此,本文就霧霾對(duì)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)損傷方面的研究進(jìn)行綜述,以期為預(yù)防霧霾造成的神經(jīng)損害提供防范措施。
1.1 霧霾對(duì)認(rèn)知能力的影響研究發(fā)現(xiàn),霧霾能夠通過(guò)影響腦的神經(jīng)發(fā)育進(jìn)而影響神經(jīng)的各項(xiàng)功能[2-4]。霧霾不僅能影響成年人的認(rèn)知能力[5]和語(yǔ)言能力[6],也能夠影響未成年人的認(rèn)知能力[2,4]。霧霾與孤獨(dú)癥(autism spectrum disorder,ASD)、精神分裂癥、認(rèn)知發(fā)育損害等有一定相關(guān)性。霧霾暴露較多的居民具有更高的ASD發(fā)病率。生活在霧霾較高區(qū)域的孕婦其子代患精神分裂癥的概率大大增加[7]。在生長(zhǎng)發(fā)育階段,霧霾還能導(dǎo)致亞臨床認(rèn)知效應(yīng),如神經(jīng)發(fā)育不良、焦慮和抑郁、注意力不集中等[3,8-9]。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),小鼠孕期暴露于霧霾可使子代小鼠的運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí)間縮短,而運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí)間縮短是抑郁癥的特征性表現(xiàn)[9]。雄性小鼠更容易產(chǎn)生抑郁,其機(jī)制可能與杏仁核的激活有關(guān)[10-11]。霧霾能增加小鼠杏仁核單胺類(lèi)神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)的濃度,如多巴胺、血清素等,然而,在強(qiáng)迫游泳實(shí)驗(yàn)中并未發(fā)現(xiàn)霧霾暴露引發(fā)子代小鼠抑郁行為的改變[12]。
1.2 霧霾對(duì)記憶能力的影響霧霾能降低短期記憶的形成(如新物體識(shí)別)[9,13]。霧霾對(duì)小鼠短期記憶的損傷可能源自谷氨酸能體系的改變。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),暴露于霧霾的小鼠大腦海馬區(qū)域的谷氨酸濃度提高了1.26倍[14]。腦內(nèi)谷氨酸濃度過(guò)高會(huì)引起神經(jīng)毒性效應(yīng)。大腦中炎性因子如白細(xì)胞介素(interleukin,IL)-6、IL-1b、腫瘤壞死因子-α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)水平的改變也能導(dǎo)致行為學(xué)的改變,如TNF-α能增強(qiáng)谷氨酸所致的興奮型神經(jīng)毒性[15],并能改變短期記憶。炎性因子能影響突觸可塑性,孕期霧霾的攝入可導(dǎo)致這些炎性因子在不同腦區(qū)呈現(xiàn)復(fù)雜改變[14,16]。
1.3 霧霾對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)能力的影響小鼠孕期暴露于霧霾對(duì)子代運(yùn)動(dòng)功能造成的損傷主要表現(xiàn)在自發(fā)運(yùn)動(dòng)行為和平衡能力的降低,對(duì)于自發(fā)性運(yùn)動(dòng)行為的損害更多的表現(xiàn)于雄性后代[17-19]。
2.1 霧霾細(xì)顆粒成分可以突破血-腦屏障進(jìn)入神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)對(duì)墨西哥城的一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),兒童長(zhǎng)期暴露于PM2.5、臭氧,容易引發(fā)阿爾茲海默癥(Alzheimer′s disease,AD),表現(xiàn)為系統(tǒng)性腦部炎癥反應(yīng)、腦脊液中β淀粉樣蛋白1-42(amyloid-betape pticle 1-42,Aβ1-42)水平降低、血-腦屏障破壞,甚至?xí)l(fā)腦容量和腦代謝改變及兒童注意力不集中[20]。通過(guò)掃描電鏡發(fā)現(xiàn),這些兒童的神經(jīng)元、膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞、脈絡(luò)層等出現(xiàn)顆粒物。霧霾中顆粒物的致病機(jī)制與線粒體、內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)、樹(shù)突、軸突等的作用有關(guān),出現(xiàn)在細(xì)胞中的顆粒物多以球形顆粒物為主,粒徑為(29.1±11.2)nm,含量大于85%。霧霾暴露兒童腦細(xì)胞內(nèi)出現(xiàn)粗面內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)退行性改變、線粒體形態(tài)異常、滑面內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)擴(kuò)大。顆粒物與神經(jīng)纖維、膠質(zhì)纖維和染色體緊密接觸等現(xiàn)象預(yù)示其能改變微管動(dòng)力學(xué),影響線粒體的功能,導(dǎo)致非正常折疊蛋白累積,引發(fā)細(xì)胞核系統(tǒng)異常。霧霾甚至能導(dǎo)致鈣平衡及凋亡信號(hào)、自噬和表觀遺傳學(xué)的變化。氧化應(yīng)激增高、廣泛分布的微型顆粒物構(gòu)成了一條新的導(dǎo)致AD病理改變的途徑,因此,對(duì)于人類(lèi)而言,需要早期保護(hù)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)和采用多種干預(yù)以抵御環(huán)境污染中顆粒物的慢性毒性。
2.2 氧化應(yīng)激及線粒體損傷觸發(fā)凋亡發(fā)生將小鼠同時(shí)暴露于含有PM2.5、二氧化硫、一氧化氮的混合氣體中,可使小鼠空間學(xué)習(xí)能力降低,并促進(jìn)凋亡相關(guān)蛋白(p53、bax、bcl-2)的表達(dá)[21]。這些改變與線粒體形態(tài)及功能的改變有關(guān)。
將不同劑量的PM2.5與大鼠的嗅球、大腦皮層、紋狀體、海馬和小腦的勻漿液混合培養(yǎng)后發(fā)現(xiàn),其能降低大腦皮層和海馬區(qū)域的抗過(guò)氧化氫酶,促進(jìn)脂質(zhì)過(guò)氧化[22],提示其能引發(fā)進(jìn)一步的神經(jīng)損害。
2.3 腦部廣泛的炎癥效應(yīng)霧霾可導(dǎo)致小鼠神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)出現(xiàn)炎癥反應(yīng),腦部炎性因子(IL-1b、IL-6、IL-10、TNF-α)水平增高及膠質(zhì)免疫反應(yīng)(包括膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞激活[12]和星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞激活),其病理特征表現(xiàn)為海馬區(qū)域、胼胝體中星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞(雌性)和小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞(雄性)增多,雄性小鼠星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞數(shù)量降低,雌性小鼠小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞無(wú)顯著性變化[13]。
將PM2.5與二氧化硫同時(shí)暴露于大鼠[23],能使大鼠大腦皮層和海馬區(qū)域的TNF-α、IL-6 mRNA及蛋白表達(dá)增加,轉(zhuǎn)化生長(zhǎng)因子β1表達(dá)降低,大鼠腦皮層和海馬區(qū)域Aβ1-42水平增加,并且Aβ1-42與炎性因子水平呈正相關(guān)。
有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),將小鼠暴露于(65.7±34.2)μg·m-3的PM2.5中,9個(gè)月后小鼠腦內(nèi)淀粉蛋白前β位分解酶1、淀粉樣前體蛋白及β淀粉樣蛋白的含量增加,這與環(huán)氧酶1和環(huán)氧酶2的持續(xù)增加有關(guān)[24],該研究反映了顆粒物所導(dǎo)致的早期腦部炎癥能促進(jìn)AD早期病理癥狀的出現(xiàn)。
2.4 PM2.5通過(guò)引發(fā)腦器質(zhì)性變化進(jìn)而引發(fā)行為學(xué)改變 母鼠暴露于霧霾可導(dǎo)致子代小鼠側(cè)腦室擴(kuò)大,這一變化在雄性子代動(dòng)物表現(xiàn)較為突出[25]。孕期暴露于霧霾的小鼠其子代腦部血管周?chē)霈F(xiàn)巨噬細(xì)胞侵入,并環(huán)繞星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞[26],小于0.2μm的顆粒物能減少小鼠(3個(gè)月齡)海馬回CA1區(qū)域的體積,減少腦內(nèi)少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的數(shù)量,增加小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞Iba的數(shù)量,而對(duì)于齒狀回區(qū)域影響較小。針對(duì)71~89歲的1 365名老年女性的一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),長(zhǎng)期暴露于霧霾可導(dǎo)致腦皮層灰質(zhì)和皮層下白質(zhì)的體積縮小,而對(duì)海馬區(qū)域的體積無(wú)顯著影響[27]。因此,PM2.5對(duì)腦的器質(zhì)性改變是引發(fā)行為學(xué)變化的物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)之一。
2.5 腦部神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)改變腦部神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)的變化表現(xiàn)為多巴胺[17-18]、谷氨酸水平增高和谷氨酸受體1降低等[28];孕期霧霾暴露會(huì)導(dǎo)致新生小鼠神經(jīng)分化和軸突發(fā)生異常,stage3神經(jīng)元數(shù)量降低[29]。
細(xì)顆粒霧霾能通過(guò)一定方式擴(kuò)散進(jìn)入神經(jīng)系統(tǒng),所攜帶的物質(zhì)可引發(fā)氧化應(yīng)激反應(yīng),導(dǎo)致線粒體及各種細(xì)胞器出現(xiàn)退行性改變,進(jìn)而觸發(fā)神經(jīng)元、膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞等出現(xiàn)非正常折疊蛋白,出現(xiàn)AD的早期癥狀。霧霾也可以通過(guò)母體的攝入對(duì)胎兒的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)發(fā)育產(chǎn)生影響,進(jìn)而影響到子代的認(rèn)知和神經(jīng)行為學(xué)。因此,對(duì)于目前霧霾較為嚴(yán)重的區(qū)域,需要采取更多的有效措施以降低霧霾程度,或者采取一定的方式,以達(dá)到初步的霧霾隔離、霧霾慢性毒性的預(yù)防。
[1]GONZALEZ-MACIEL A,REYNOSO-ROBLES R,TORRES-JARDON R,et al.Combustion-derived nanoparticles in key brain target cellsand organelles in young urbanites:culprithidden in plain sight in Alzheimer′s disease development[J].J Alzheimers Dis,2017,59(1):189-208.
[2]VOLK H E,LURMANN F,PENFOLD B,et al.Traffic-related air pollution,particulate matter,and autism[J].JAMA Psychiatry,2013,70(1):71-77.
[3]PERERA F P,TANG D,WANG S,et al.Prenatal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(PAH)exposure and child behavior at age6-7 years[J].Environ Health Perspect,2012,120(6):921-926.
[4]PEDERSEN C B,RAACHOU-NIELSEN O,HTEL O,et al.Air pollution from traffic and schizophrenia risk[J].Schizophr Res,2004,66(1):83-85.
[5]AILSHIRE J,CIRMMINSE A.Fine particulatematter air pollution and cognitive function among older US adults[J].Am JEpidemiol,2014,180(4):359-366.
[6]GATTO N,HENDERSON VW,HODISH N,et al.Components of air pollution and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults in Los Angeles[J].Neurotoxicology,2014,40:1-7.
[7]MARCELIS M,TAKEI N,VAN O J.Urbanization and risk for schizophrenia:does the effect operate before or around the time of illness onset[J].Psychol Med,1999,29(5):1197-1203.
[8]PERERA F P,RAUH V,WHYATT R M,et al.Effect of prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on neurodevelopment in the first3 yearsof life among inner-city children[J].Environ Health Perspect,2006,114(8):1287-1292.
[9]GUXENSM,AGUILERA I,BALLESTER F,et al.Prenatal exposure to residential air pollution and infant mental development:modulation by antioxidants and detoxification factors[J].Environ Health Perspect,2012,120(1):144-149.
[10]DUNLOP B W,NEMEROFF C B.The role of dopamine in the pathophysiology of depression[J].Arch Gen Psychiatry,2007,64(3):327-337.
[11]YANG T T,SIMMONSA N,MATTHEWSSC,et al.Adolescents with major depression demonstrate increased amygdala activation[J].JAm Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry,2010,49(1):42-51.
[12]BOLTON JL,SMITH SH,HUFF N C,et al.Prenatal air pollution exposure induces neuroinflammation and predisposes offspring to weight gain in adulthood in a sex-specific manner[J].FASEB J,2012,26(11):4743-4754.
[13]ALLEN J L,WESON D,PRINCE L,et al.Developmental exposure to concentrated ambientultrafine particulatematter air pollution in mice results in persistent and sex-dependent behavioral neurotoxicity and glial activation[J].Toxicol Sci,2014,140(1):160-178.
[14]ALLEN J L,LIU X,PELKOWSKIS,et al.Early postnatal exposure to ultrafine particulate matter air pollution:persistent ventriculomegaly,neurochemical disruption,and glial activation preferentially in male mice[J].Environ Health Perspect,2014,122(9):939-945.
[15]ZOU JY,CREWSFT.TNF alpha potentiates glutamate neurotoxicity by inhibiting glutamate uptake in organotypic brain slice cultures:neuroprotection by NF-κB inhibition[J].Brain Res,2005,1034(1/2):11-24.
[16]BLOCK M L,CALDERON-GARCIDUENAS L.Air pollution:mechanisms of neuroinflammation and CNS disease[J].Trends Neurosci,2009,32(9):506-516.
[17]SUZUKIT,OSHIO S,IWATAM,et al.In utero exposure to a low concentration of diesel exhaust affects spont-aneous locomotor activity and monoaminergic system in male mice[J].Part Fibre Toxicol,2010,7:7.
[18]YOKOTA S,MIZUO K,MORIYA N,et al.Effect of prenatal exposure to diesel exhaust on dopaminergic system in mice[J].Neurosci Lett,2009,449(1):38-41.
[19]YOKOTA S,MORIYA N,IWATA M,etal.Exposure to diesel exhaust during fetal period affects behavior and neurotransmitters in male offspringmice[J].JToxicol Sci,2013,38(1):3-23.
[20]CALDERSON-GARCIDUENAS L,REYNOSO-ROBLESR,PERZGUILLE B,et al.Combustion-derived nanoparticles,the neuroenteric system,cervical vagus,hyperphosphorylated alpha synuclein and tau in young Mexico city residents[J].Environ Res,2017,159:186-201.
[21]KU T,JIN X,ZHANG Y,et al.PM2.5,SO2and NO2co-exposure impairs neurobehavior and inducesmitochondrial injuries in the mouse brain[J].Chemosphere,2016,163:27-34.
[22]FAGUNDESLS,F(xiàn)LECK ADA S,ZANCHIA C,etal.Direct contactwith particulate matter increases oxidative stress in different brain structures[J].Inhal Toxicol,2015,27(10):462-467.
[23]YANG Z,CHEN Y,ZHANG Y,et al.The role of pro-/anti-inflammation imbalance in Aβ42 accumulation of rat brain co-exposed to fine particlematter and sulfur dioxide[J].Toxicol Mech Methods,2017,27(8):568-574.
[24]BHATT D,PUIG K L,GORR M W,et al.A pilot study to assess effects of long-term inhalation of airborne particulate matter on early Alzheimer-like changes in themouse brain[J].PLoSOne,2015,10(5):e0127102.
[25]PARK E J,BAE E,YIJ,etal.Repeated-dose toxicity and inflammatory responses inmice by oral administration of silver nanoparticles[J].Environ Toxicol Pharmacol,2010,30(2):162-168.
[26]ONODA A,UMEZAWA M,TAKEDA K,et al.Effects ofmaternal exposure to ultrafine carbon black on brain perivascular macrophages and surrounding astrocytes in offspring mice[J].PLoS One,2014,9(4):e94336.
[27]CASANOVA R,WANG X,REYES J,et al.A Voxel-based morphometry study reveals local brain structural alterations associated with ambient fine particles in older women[J].Front Hum Neurosci,2016,10:495.
[28]MORGANT E,DAVISD A,IWATA N,et al.Glutamatergic neurons in rodentmodels respond to nanoscale particulate urban air pollutants in vivo and in vitro[J].Environ Health Perspect,2011,119(7):1003-1009.
[29]DAVISD A,BORTOLATOM,GODAR SC,et al.Prenatal exposure to urban air nanoparticles in mice causes altered neuronal differentiation and depression-like responses[J].PLoS One,2013,8(5):e64128.