中國醫(yī)師協(xié)會骨科醫(yī)師分會骨腫瘤專業(yè)委員會
郭衛(wèi)1*牛曉輝2*肖建如3*蔡鄭東4*
(1.北京大學(xué)人民醫(yī)院骨腫瘤科,北京100044;2.北京積水潭醫(yī)院骨腫瘤科,北京100035;3.上海長征醫(yī)院骨科,上海200003;4.上海市第一人民醫(yī)院骨科,上海200080)
證據(jù)推薦等級方法采用GRADE(Grading of Recommendations Assessment,Development and Evaluation)方法,內(nèi)容見表1。
骨肉瘤是兒童及年輕患者最常見的原發(fā)惡性腫瘤。中位發(fā)病年齡為20歲。65歲以上的骨肉瘤患者常繼發(fā)于 Paget病[1]。
骨肉瘤主要有髓內(nèi)、表面、骨外三種亞型。髓內(nèi)高級別骨肉瘤是經(jīng)典病理類型,占全部骨肉瘤的80%[2]。骨肉瘤是一種梭形細胞腫瘤,腫瘤細胞可產(chǎn)生骨樣基質(zhì)或不成熟骨。最常見的病變部位為生長活躍的股骨遠端、脛骨近端的干骺端。低級別髓內(nèi)骨肉瘤占全部骨肉瘤的2%,發(fā)病部位與經(jīng)典骨肉瘤類似。皮質(zhì)旁和骨膜骨肉瘤發(fā)生于皮質(zhì)旁或皮質(zhì)表面。皮質(zhì)旁骨肉瘤為低度惡性,約占全部骨肉瘤的5%[3]。最常見的部位為股骨遠端后方,腫瘤很少發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)移。24%~43%的低級別骨旁骨肉瘤可能轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)楦呒墑e肉瘤[4,5]。骨膜骨肉瘤為中度惡性腫瘤,好發(fā)于股骨及脛骨[3]。高級別表面型骨肉瘤十分罕見,占骨表面骨肉瘤的10%[6,7]。
疼痛和腫脹是骨肉瘤早期最常見的癥狀。疼痛最初多為間斷性,常與生長痛混淆,而導(dǎo)致確診較晚。骨肉瘤可通過血行播散,最常見的轉(zhuǎn)移部位為肺。
表1 GRADE推薦等級和證據(jù)分級
以TP53基因突變?yōu)樘卣鞯腖i-Fraumeni綜合征患者繼發(fā)骨肉瘤的風(fēng)險較高[8-10]。對有視網(wǎng)膜母細胞瘤病史的患者,骨肉瘤是常見繼發(fā)惡性腫瘤,這類患者的特征是視網(wǎng)膜母細胞瘤基因RB1突變[11-13]。骨肉瘤患病風(fēng)險的增高還與其他一系列遺傳傾向綜合征相關(guān)[13]。骨肉瘤是最常見的放射誘導(dǎo)的骨起源惡性腫瘤[14,15]。
多藥方案的新輔助化療和其他輔助治療措施使骨肉瘤患者預(yù)后得到了改善。通過目前的綜合治療,接近2/3的骨肉瘤患者能夠治愈,保肢率達到90%~95%[16]。
腫瘤部位及大小、年齡、出現(xiàn)轉(zhuǎn)移、轉(zhuǎn)移灶部位、化療效果、手術(shù)類型、外科邊界是肢體及軀干骨肉瘤的主要預(yù)后因素[8-10,13,17,18]。應(yīng)用COSS方案治療的1702例軀干或肢體骨肉瘤患者的隨訪研究表明,年齡、部位、轉(zhuǎn)移是影響預(yù)后的因素[17]。在肢體骨肉瘤中,就診時腫瘤體積大小、有無轉(zhuǎn)移對預(yù)后有顯著影響[17]。在多因素分析中,除年齡外其他因素均為影響預(yù)后的因素,其中手術(shù)切除邊界以及化療反應(yīng)是關(guān)鍵的預(yù)后因素。最近的一項有關(guān)4838例骨肉瘤患者新輔助化療薈萃分析表明,女性患者接受化療后的腫瘤壞死率較高,總體生存率較高,兒童患者較青少年及成年患者療效更好[12]。在最近的一項聯(lián)合3個歐洲骨肉瘤協(xié)作組的隨機對照研究中,術(shù)前化療療效較好,腫瘤累及部位位于肢體遠端(膝關(guān)節(jié)、肘關(guān)節(jié)、踝關(guān)節(jié)周圍)、女性患者的預(yù)后較好[10]。此外,高BMI患者預(yù)后較差[11]。
在出現(xiàn)轉(zhuǎn)移的骨肉瘤患者中,轉(zhuǎn)移灶數(shù)目以及是否可以徹底切除是影響預(yù)后的因素[15]。對于肺部有一個或少量可切除病灶的患者,其預(yù)后與無轉(zhuǎn)移的患者接近[14,19]。
ALP、LDH水平升高為影響骨肉瘤的預(yù)后因素[8,9,13]。在一項包括1421例肢體骨肉瘤患者的研究中,Bacci等[8]報道了有轉(zhuǎn)移的患者LDH水平較無轉(zhuǎn)移患者高(36.6%∶18.8%,P<0.0001)。五年無病生存率亦與LDH水平相關(guān)(LDH升高者為39.5%,LDH正常者為60%)。在一項包含789例肢體骨肉瘤患者的回顧性研究中,Bacci等報道了ALP水平對于無事件生存率有顯著影響。對于ALP水平升高4倍以上的患者5年無事件生存率為24%,而ALP低于此水平的患者5年無事件生存率為46%(P<0.001)[9]。但在多因素分析中,血清LDH及ALP水平并未表現(xiàn)出顯著性。
對于原發(fā)灶應(yīng)進行影像學(xué)檢查(MRI和CT)、胸部檢查、PET-CT掃描和(或)骨掃描。對于可疑轉(zhuǎn)移灶應(yīng)進行CT或MRI檢查。骨肉瘤在X線片上可表現(xiàn)為皮質(zhì)破壞以及不規(guī)則的反應(yīng)性成骨。骨掃描可發(fā)現(xiàn)原發(fā)及骨轉(zhuǎn)移灶。MRI可清晰地顯示腫瘤在骨和軟組織內(nèi)的邊界,以及周邊組織受累情況,并可發(fā)現(xiàn)跳躍灶,有利于制定手術(shù)計劃。此外,ALP及LDH在骨肉瘤患者常有升高。與無轉(zhuǎn)移的患者相比,有轉(zhuǎn)移的患者LDH水平明顯較高[9]。
骨肉瘤患者除病史和體格檢查外,應(yīng)完善病變部位的MRI、CT及胸片、胸部CT檢查,同時還應(yīng)進行PET和(或)骨掃描檢查;如發(fā)現(xiàn)轉(zhuǎn)移灶,則對轉(zhuǎn)移灶行MRI或CT檢查;另外,LDH和ALP水平也是常規(guī)檢查。切開活檢和穿刺活檢(粗針或針吸)是骨與軟組腫瘤診斷中的兩種方法[20,21]。切開活檢是最準(zhǔn)確的方法,因為它可以提供較多的標(biāo)本來進行免疫組化或細胞遺傳學(xué)檢查[22]。但是,切開活檢需要在手術(shù)室進行全身麻醉或區(qū)域麻醉。穿刺活檢可以在局部麻醉下進行,需要或不需要鎮(zhèn)靜。當(dāng)獲得標(biāo)本充分時,穿刺活檢可作為切開活檢的另一種選擇,診斷準(zhǔn)確率為88%~96%[23-25]。隨著影像學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展,影像學(xué)定位下的穿刺活檢越來越多地在診斷原發(fā)和繼發(fā)骨腫瘤中得到應(yīng)用[26]?;顧z應(yīng)該在患者將會接受進一步治療的中心進行。在活檢時,應(yīng)妥善固定病變骨,采取適當(dāng)?shù)拇胧┓乐共±砉钦鄣陌l(fā)生。活檢的實施對于保肢手術(shù)非常重要,如果活檢不當(dāng)將會影響患者的預(yù)后[20,21]。如果活檢瘢痕在腫瘤切除時沒有整塊切除,切開活檢和穿刺活檢有導(dǎo)致腫瘤局部復(fù)發(fā)的可能,這與活檢道的腫瘤播散有關(guān)。穿刺活檢的腫瘤播散風(fēng)險低[27,28]。然而,穿刺活檢和切開活檢的原則是一樣的。在計劃活檢路徑時,應(yīng)保證活檢帶在計劃切除的范圍內(nèi),使得手術(shù)時其切除范圍可與原發(fā)腫瘤達到同樣的廣泛邊緣。(1B級)
對于低級別骨肉瘤(包括髓內(nèi)型和表面型),可直接廣泛切除(1B級);對于骨膜骨肉瘤,可先考慮化療,再行廣泛切除。(2B級)
對于高級別骨肉瘤(包括髓內(nèi)型和表面型),均建議先行術(shù)前化療(1A級),化療后通過胸片、局部X線片、PET或骨掃描等進行重新評估及再分期。對于可切除的腫瘤,應(yīng)予廣泛切除。當(dāng)切緣陰性、化療反應(yīng)良好時,則繼續(xù)化療;而化療反應(yīng)差時,可考慮更改化療方案。當(dāng)切緣陽性、化療反應(yīng)良好時,則繼續(xù)化療,同時考慮其他局部治療(手術(shù)、放療等);而化療反應(yīng)差時,可考慮更改化療方案,同時考慮其他局部治療(手術(shù)、放療等)。當(dāng)腫瘤無法切除,則僅考慮放、化療。治療后對患者持續(xù)監(jiān)測。(1B級)
對于就診時已有轉(zhuǎn)移的患者,若肺部或其他內(nèi)臟的轉(zhuǎn)移灶可以切除,則建議切除轉(zhuǎn)移灶,并輔以化療,同時按前述原則治療原發(fā)病灶。當(dāng)轉(zhuǎn)移灶無法切除時,可行放、化療,同時重新評估原發(fā)病灶,選擇合適的局部控制手段。治療后對患者持續(xù)監(jiān)測。(1B級)
隨訪監(jiān)測在第1、2年應(yīng)每3個月1次,第3年每4個月1次,第4、5年每半年1次,此后每年1次。每次均應(yīng)完善影像學(xué)及實驗室檢查(1B級)。每次隨訪應(yīng)重新評估患者功能。如發(fā)現(xiàn)復(fù)發(fā),則應(yīng)行化療,如可能則考慮手術(shù)切除。治療反應(yīng)良好則繼續(xù)監(jiān)測,當(dāng)再次復(fù)發(fā)或疾病進展,如有可能則考慮手術(shù)切除,或參與相關(guān)臨床試驗性治療,也可考慮153釤-EDTMP治療或姑息性放療,同時給予支持治療。(2B級)
手術(shù)(截肢或保肢)仍是骨肉瘤治療的主要方式[29]。對于無轉(zhuǎn)移的高級別骨肉瘤,研究表明截肢術(shù)與保肢手術(shù)在復(fù)發(fā)率以及生存率上無顯著差異[30-32],而保肢手術(shù)往往能帶來更好的功能[33]。在新輔助化療反應(yīng)較好的高級別骨肉瘤患者,如果能達到廣泛的外科邊界,應(yīng)首選保肢治療[30,34]。當(dāng)保肢治療無法達到滿意的外科邊界時應(yīng)進行截肢治療[29,34]。(1B級)
在手術(shù)基礎(chǔ)上聯(lián)合輔助化療和新輔助化療可明顯改善非轉(zhuǎn)移性骨肉瘤患者的預(yù)后(1A級)。早期臨床試驗使用多藥聯(lián)合方案,包括以下藥物中至少三種:多柔比星、順鉑、博來霉素、環(huán)磷酰胺或異環(huán)磷酰胺、放線菌素D和大劑量甲氨蝶呤[35-39]。此后的臨床試驗證實,包括順鉑、多柔比星的短期、密集化療方案(含或不含大劑量甲氨蝶呤和異環(huán)磷酰胺)可獲得非常好的遠期結(jié)果,與多藥聯(lián)合方案效果大致相同[40-46]。
在歐洲骨肉瘤協(xié)作組實施的隨機臨床試驗中,對于可手術(shù)切除的、非轉(zhuǎn)移性骨肉瘤患者,多柔比星和順鉑的聯(lián)合用藥方案比多藥聯(lián)合方案耐受性更好,生存率無差別[41]。前者的3年和5年總生存期(overall survival,OS)分別為65%和55%,5年無進展生存率(progerssion free survival,PFS)為44%。在INT-0133試驗中,針對非轉(zhuǎn)移性可切除的骨肉瘤患者,研究者對比三藥聯(lián)合方案(順鉑,多柔比星,甲氨蝶呤)和四藥聯(lián)合方案(順鉑,多柔比星,甲氨蝶呤,異環(huán)磷酰胺),6年無事件生存率(event-free survival,EFS)和OS二者無差別,分別為63%∶64%,以及74%∶70%[47]。
為了減輕遠期的心臟毒性和耳毒性,針對非轉(zhuǎn)移性骨肉瘤患者,研究者設(shè)計了不包括多柔比星和順鉑的方案[48,49]。在Ⅱ期臨床試驗中,對于非轉(zhuǎn)移性肢體骨肉瘤患者,聯(lián)合使用順鉑、異環(huán)磷酰胺、表柔比星療效較好,且耐受性良好[48]。中位隨訪64個月,5年DFS和OS分別為41.9%和48.2%。在另一個多中心隨機試驗中(SFOP-OS94),聯(lián)合使用異環(huán)磷酰胺和依托泊苷與聯(lián)用大劑量甲氨蝶呤和多柔比星的方案相比,可獲得較高的組織學(xué)反應(yīng)率(56%∶39%)。但兩組病例5年OS相似,5年EFS無顯著差別[49]。
無論何種方案的化療,在新輔助化療后好的組織病理學(xué)反應(yīng)率(壞死率是否大于90%)是判斷預(yù)后的重要因素[16,50]。Rizzoli Institue進行了一項包括881例患者的非轉(zhuǎn)移性肢體骨肉瘤的新輔助化療研究,Bacci等發(fā)現(xiàn)5年DFS和OS與化療的組織學(xué)壞死率相關(guān)[51]。在反應(yīng)好和反應(yīng)差的患者中,5年DFS和OS分別為67.9%∶51.3%(P<0.0001),以及78.4%∶63.7%(P<0.0001)。兒童癌癥組的報告也確認了上述發(fā)現(xiàn):反應(yīng)好者,8年術(shù)后EFS和OS分別為81%和87%;反應(yīng)差者,8年EFS和OS分別為46%和52%。
有研究評估了化療中加用米伐木肽(muramyl tripeptide phosphatidyl ethanolamine,MTP-PE)的 效果[47,52]。在非轉(zhuǎn)移、可切除的患者中,加用MTP-PE后6年OS顯著提高(由70%升至78%),EFS有改善趨勢[47],但是在轉(zhuǎn)移性疾病中,對生存的改善并不顯著[52]。
4.2.1 一線治療(初始/新輔助/輔助治療或轉(zhuǎn)移):①順鉑聯(lián)合阿霉素;②MAP(大劑量甲氨蝶呤、順鉑、阿霉素);③阿霉素、順鉑、異環(huán)磷酰胺,聯(lián)合大劑量甲氨蝶呤;④異環(huán)磷酰胺、順鉑、表阿霉素。
4.2.2 二線治療(復(fù)發(fā)/難治或轉(zhuǎn)移):①多西紫杉醇和吉西他濱;②環(huán)磷酰胺、足葉乙甙;③環(huán)磷酰胺、拓撲替康;④吉西他濱;⑤異環(huán)磷酰胺、足葉乙甙;⑥異環(huán)磷酰胺、卡鉑、足葉乙甙;⑦大劑量甲氨蝶呤、足葉乙甙、異環(huán)磷酰胺;⑧153Sm-EDTMP用于難治或復(fù)發(fā)的超二線治療;⑨索拉菲尼。
指南推薦對低級別骨肉瘤(包括髓內(nèi)型和表面型)及骨膜骨肉瘤首選廣泛切除(1B級)。骨膜骨肉瘤患者可考慮進行術(shù)前化療(2B級)。盡管新輔助化療及輔助化療已被應(yīng)用于骨膜骨肉瘤,但實際上并沒有證據(jù)支持其與單純廣泛切除相比能改善預(yù)后[53,54]。歐洲骨骼肌肉腫瘤學(xué)會(European Musculoskeletal Oncology Society)發(fā)表了一篇119例骨膜骨肉瘤患者的研究,大部分患者接受新輔助化療,但并未改善預(yù)后[54,55]。最近,Cesari等[53]報道了類似發(fā)現(xiàn):輔助化療+手術(shù)和僅接受手術(shù)的患者相比較,十年整體生存率分別為86%及83%(P=0.73)。對高級別無轉(zhuǎn)移骨肉瘤患者而言,長期隨訪顯示,無瘤生存率和整體生存率顯著得益于輔助化療。
低級別(包括髓內(nèi)型和表面型)和骨膜骨肉瘤接受廣泛切除后,病理檢測發(fā)現(xiàn)高級別骨肉瘤成分,本指南推薦進行術(shù)后化療(2B級)。
對高級別骨肉瘤更傾向于進行廣泛切除手術(shù)前的化療[14,40-42,45-49,55](1A級)。部分年齡較大的患者可能受益于即刻手術(shù)。廣泛切除手術(shù)后,腫瘤對術(shù)前化療組織學(xué)反應(yīng)有效(殘余存活腫瘤小于10%)的患者應(yīng)當(dāng)繼續(xù)接受數(shù)個療程相同方案的化療。術(shù)后組織學(xué)反應(yīng)不佳(殘余存活腫瘤大于或等于10%)的患者可考慮行不同方案化療,然而通過改變化療方案來改善這部分患者預(yù)后的嘗試并不成功[56-59]。歐洲與美洲骨肉瘤研究組(EURAMOS)正進行一項隨機試驗,根據(jù)研究可切除腫瘤對術(shù)前化療的組織學(xué)反應(yīng)來制定治療策略。如果術(shù)前化療后腫瘤仍不可切除,推薦進行放療或化療。對部分不可切除或無法完整切除的骨肉瘤患者,光子/質(zhì)子聯(lián)合放療及質(zhì)子束放療對局部病灶控制顯示有效[60,61](1B級)。
10%~20%患者初次診斷時即發(fā)現(xiàn)有轉(zhuǎn)移[9,62]。對于這部分患者,轉(zhuǎn)移灶的數(shù)量、所有臨床可及病灶是否可行完整外科切除是獨立預(yù)后因素[62]。在肺轉(zhuǎn)移患者中,單側(cè)轉(zhuǎn)移、肺部結(jié)節(jié)數(shù)量較少與預(yù)后良好相關(guān)[14,19]。只有1~2處轉(zhuǎn)移灶的患者2年無瘤生存率顯著高于3處及以上轉(zhuǎn)移灶者(分別為78%、28%)[14]。
對無轉(zhuǎn)移的高級別骨肉瘤患者,化療顯著改善預(yù)后,但對于就診時即存在轉(zhuǎn)移者則差很多[63-65]。對一組病例采用順鉑+柔紅霉素+大劑量甲氨蝶呤+異環(huán)磷酰胺方案,57例就診時即存在轉(zhuǎn)移者2年無病生存率和整體生存率分別為21%和55%,而就診時無轉(zhuǎn)移者分別為75%和94%[65]。
在就診時即存在轉(zhuǎn)移的接受聯(lián)合治療的骨肉瘤患者中,通過化療和外科治療后切除轉(zhuǎn)移灶的患者的長期生存率高于無法切除轉(zhuǎn)移灶者(分別為48%和5%)[66]。積極化療聯(lián)合外科切除原發(fā)灶和轉(zhuǎn)移灶可改善四肢原發(fā)骨肉瘤肺轉(zhuǎn)移患者的預(yù)后[67]。
對就診時即存在的可切除轉(zhuǎn)移灶(包括肺、腹腔臟器或骨),本指南推薦術(shù)前化療繼以廣泛切除原發(fā)腫瘤;化療和手術(shù)切除轉(zhuǎn)移灶可以作為轉(zhuǎn)移性病變的治療手段。不可切除性轉(zhuǎn)移灶應(yīng)當(dāng)行化療和(或)放療,繼以對原發(fā)腫瘤進行再評估。(1B級)
無轉(zhuǎn)移骨肉瘤患者中約30%、診斷時即存在轉(zhuǎn)移者中約80%會復(fù)發(fā)。單一轉(zhuǎn)移灶、初次復(fù)發(fā)時間、初次復(fù)發(fā)時病變可完整切除是最重要的預(yù)后因素,而無法耐受手術(shù)、二次以上復(fù)發(fā)者預(yù)后不佳[68-72]。原發(fā)無轉(zhuǎn)移骨肉瘤患者中,發(fā)生肺轉(zhuǎn)移的間隔時間越長,生存狀況明顯更佳[71]。COSS試驗通過大宗隨機隊列研究,報道了多次復(fù)發(fā)患者的預(yù)后與其外科切除情況相關(guān)[73]。
一些臨床試驗評估了依托泊苷聯(lián)合環(huán)磷酰胺或異環(huán)磷酰胺的療效[74,75]。法國兒童腫瘤學(xué)會(French Society of Pediatric Oncology)的一項Ⅱ期臨床試驗表明異環(huán)磷酰胺聯(lián)合依托泊苷在復(fù)發(fā)性或難治性骨肉瘤患者中取得了48%的應(yīng)答率[75]。另一項Ⅱ期臨床試驗中,環(huán)磷酰胺聯(lián)合依托泊苷在復(fù)發(fā)性高危型骨肉瘤患者中獲得了19%應(yīng)答率、35%疾病穩(wěn)定率[74]。四個月后無進展生存率為42%。吉西他濱單藥或聯(lián)合方案,如多西他賽聯(lián)合吉西他濱、環(huán)磷酰胺聯(lián)合托泊替康、異環(huán)磷酰胺+卡鉑+依托泊苷等,在復(fù)發(fā)或難治性骨肉瘤患者中均有效[76-79]。
二氯化鐳-223(223RaCl2)是一類親骨性放射性治療物,目前正處于轉(zhuǎn)移或復(fù)發(fā)骨肉瘤治療的初期評估階段[80]。該藥物在美國已被批準(zhǔn)用于去勢難治性前列腺癌骨轉(zhuǎn)移的治療。釤-153乙烯二胺四亞甲基膦酸(153Sm-EDTMP)是另一類親骨性放射性治療物,已于局部復(fù)發(fā)或轉(zhuǎn)移性骨肉瘤及骨轉(zhuǎn)移癌患者中行評估[81,82]。Andersen等[81]報道了153Sm-EDTMP聯(lián)合外周血造血干細胞治療的副作用較小,對骨肉瘤局部復(fù)發(fā)或遠處轉(zhuǎn)移患者的疼痛緩解有效。另一項試驗表明153Sm-EDTMP對高危型骨肉瘤患者有效[82]。
針對一系列分子途徑的靶向治療手段,包括mTOR、SRC激酶家族、血管內(nèi)皮生長因子受體(VEGFR)等正位于臨床試驗驗證階段,以期改善復(fù)發(fā)性和難治性骨肉瘤患者的預(yù)后。意大利軟組織肉瘤聯(lián)合組進行的一項Ⅱ期臨床試驗中(n=30),在復(fù)發(fā)或無法切除的高級別骨肉瘤患者經(jīng)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)多方案聯(lián)合治療失敗后,索拉非尼(VEGFR抑制劑)表現(xiàn)出有效性[83]。四個月無進展生存率為46%,中位無進展生存時間和中位整體生存時間分別為4個月和7個月,臨床受益率(定義為6個月無進展)為29%,部分緩解率和疾病穩(wěn)定率分別為8%和34%,17%的患者可耐受治療6個月以上。
大劑量化療/干細胞移植(HDT/SCT)在局部進展、轉(zhuǎn)移及復(fù)發(fā)骨肉瘤患者中的安全性和有效性已經(jīng)有一些初步結(jié)論[84,85]。在意大利肉瘤協(xié)作組的研究中,對手術(shù)后化療敏感病例,采用卡鉑聯(lián)合依托泊苷化療后進行干細胞治療[85]。移植相關(guān)死亡率為3.1%,3年整體生存率和無瘤生存率分別為20%和12%。該方法在高危型患者中的有效性尚待前瞻性隨機試驗進一步證實。
復(fù)發(fā)或難治性骨肉瘤的治療策略尚待優(yōu)化。一旦復(fù)發(fā),患者應(yīng)接受二線化療方案和(或)手術(shù)切除。根據(jù)近期Ⅱ期臨床試驗結(jié)果,本指南認為索拉非尼可作為復(fù)發(fā)患者的全身性治療方案[83]。(1B級)
5.1.1 四肢骨肉瘤的外科治療方式:截肢和保肢的選擇(1B級)。
在20世紀(jì)70年代以前,由于局部復(fù)發(fā)率高且瘤段截除后缺乏有效的重建方法,臨床上常采用截肢術(shù),直到現(xiàn)在,截肢仍然是治療骨肉瘤的重要手段之一,包括經(jīng)骨截肢和關(guān)節(jié)離斷術(shù)。其優(yōu)點在于能最大限度地切除原發(fā)病灶,手術(shù)操作簡單,無需特別技術(shù)及設(shè)備,而且費用低廉,術(shù)后并發(fā)癥少,術(shù)后即可盡快施行化療以及其他輔助治療控制和殺滅原發(fā)病灶以外的轉(zhuǎn)移。截肢的適應(yīng)證包括:患者要求截肢、化療無效的ⅡB期腫瘤、重要血管神經(jīng)束受累、缺乏保肢后骨或軟組織重建條件、預(yù)計義肢功能優(yōu)于保肢[86-92]。
目前,大約90%的患者可接受保肢治療,保肢適應(yīng)證為:ⅡA期腫瘤、化療有效的ⅡB期腫瘤、重要血管神經(jīng)束未受累、軟組織覆蓋完好、預(yù)計保留肢體功能優(yōu)于義肢。遠隔轉(zhuǎn)移不是保肢的禁忌證,因此對于Ⅲ期腫瘤,也可以進行保肢治療,甚至可以行姑息性保肢治療。但是需要引起重視的是,化療反應(yīng)好仍然是保肢治療的前提[93]。
保肢手術(shù)包括腫瘤切除和功能重建兩個步驟。對應(yīng)的就是骨腫瘤學(xué)所涵蓋的兩部分內(nèi)容,即腫瘤學(xué)和骨科學(xué)。在對骨肉瘤的治療上也要滿足腫瘤學(xué)及骨科學(xué)兩方面的要求,即完整、徹底切除腫瘤(細胞學(xué)意義上的去除腫瘤)及重建因切除腫瘤所造成的股骨肌肉系統(tǒng)功能病損(骨及軟組織的重建)[94]。普通骨科醫(yī)師常犯的錯誤是過分地重視肢體功能的保留及重建,而忽略了腫瘤的治療,即以犧牲腫瘤治療的外科邊界為代價,保留維持良好功能所需的組織解剖結(jié)構(gòu)[95]。骨肉瘤的生物學(xué)行為是影響肢體及生命是否得以存留的主要因素,而骨骼肌肉系統(tǒng)功能的優(yōu)劣則影響患者的生存質(zhì)量。如果腫瘤復(fù)發(fā),其后果不僅是增加再截肢的風(fēng)險以及加重患者的痛苦和醫(yī)療費用負擔(dān),它還使得復(fù)發(fā)患者的肺轉(zhuǎn)移率遠高于無復(fù)發(fā)患者,而絕大部分骨肉瘤患者的的生命終結(jié)都是因為出現(xiàn)了肺轉(zhuǎn)移[65,96]。只有能夠生存,才談得到質(zhì)量的好壞;生命已不存在,再完美的功能也只是空談。
保肢手術(shù)的重建方法包括骨重建與軟組織重建。骨重建即重建支撐及關(guān)節(jié)功能,軟組織重建則修復(fù)動力、提供良好覆蓋。按照重建的特點又可以分為生物重建和非生物重建[88,91,97-99]。目前臨床上可供選擇的重建方法有:①人工假體,可以提供足夠的穩(wěn)定性和強度,允許早期負重行走。目前組配式假體功能良好,易于操作,但人工假體最主要的問題仍然是松動、感染和機械性損壞。②異體骨關(guān)節(jié)移植,既往的骨肉瘤治療中曾經(jīng)起過重要的作用,即使是現(xiàn)在,如果掌握好適應(yīng)證,仍然是比較好的重建方法。其最大優(yōu)點是可以提供關(guān)節(jié)表面、韌帶和肌腱附麗,但缺點是并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生率高,有報道包括感染,骨折等在內(nèi)的并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率高達40%~50%。③人工假體-異體骨復(fù)合體(APC),一般認為可以結(jié)合人工假體和異體骨兩者的特點,肢體功能恢復(fù)快,但同樣也結(jié)合兩種重建方式的缺點。④游離的帶血管蒂腓骨或髂骨移植。⑤瘤段滅活再植術(shù),該重建方式在歷史上曾經(jīng)廣泛應(yīng)用,在特定的歷史時期發(fā)揮了很大的作用,但由于腫瘤滅活不確切、復(fù)發(fā)率高、無法進行術(shù)后化療評估,并且死骨引起的并發(fā)癥高,目前已基本棄用[100]。⑥可延長式人工假體,適宜兒童患者,須定期實行延長手術(shù)[101]。⑦旋轉(zhuǎn)成形術(shù),適宜于兒童患者,但年齡較大的患者容易存在心理接受方面的問題。無論是截肢還是保肢,術(shù)后都應(yīng)積極進行康復(fù)訓(xùn)練。
5.1.2 肢體骨肉瘤的術(shù)前計劃和術(shù)后評估:不管采取何種手術(shù)方法,外科手術(shù)切除的原則仍然是以最大限度上減少局部復(fù)發(fā)為首要目標(biāo),其次是最大限度地減少對功能的影響[102]。術(shù)前計劃對于手術(shù)的實施非常重要。廣泛切除意味著手術(shù)切緣為組織學(xué)陰性,以達到最佳的局部控制效果。對部分病例而言,截肢可能是達到這一目標(biāo)的最適當(dāng)?shù)倪x擇。然而,能夠合理保全功能時,應(yīng)首選保肢手術(shù)[103,104]。
在骨肉瘤的外科治療中,一系列關(guān)于保肢治療的處置方法最為人們所接受,并且在術(shù)前設(shè)計時首先被考慮。雖然在不同的專家之間,保肢治療的方法可能存在相當(dāng)大的差異,但對于外科切除,確實需要一個統(tǒng)一的評價標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。Enneking第一個提出這個問題,并提出了外科邊界評價的概念,主要分成4類:根治性邊界、廣泛性邊界、邊緣性邊界和囊內(nèi)邊界。
5.1.3 局部復(fù)發(fā)的處理:肢體骨肉瘤局部復(fù)發(fā)的預(yù)后很差[105]。外科的處理遵循的原則仍然是安全的腫瘤邊界。對于復(fù)發(fā)病灶需要進行局部X線、CT和MRI的評估,以及全身骨掃描排除多發(fā)轉(zhuǎn)移病灶。Anderson骨腫瘤中心Takeuchi等[106]報道對于局部復(fù)發(fā)病灶5年和10年生存率分別為30%和13%。多因素分析如果合并轉(zhuǎn)移或者復(fù)發(fā)腫塊直徑大于5 cm者為獨立危險因素,足夠的外科邊界是局部復(fù)發(fā)手術(shù)治療的關(guān)鍵。
5.2.1 保肢治療的適應(yīng)證:隨著化療藥物、外科手術(shù)技術(shù)和骨科重建技術(shù)的長足發(fā)展,自上世紀(jì)70年代起保肢率與患者長期生存率都有顯著升高。保肢治療因兼顧了切除腫瘤和保留肢體功能的效果而能在全世界流行。大量長期臨床研究顯示保肢治療和截肢的治療效果相似[107-110]。但是保肢治療有其適應(yīng)證,如盲目地給不適合的患者實施保肢治療會帶來較差的治療效果。保肢治療的適應(yīng)證包括:①保肢手術(shù)能夠達到滿意的切除邊界,且半骨盆截肢術(shù)并不能提供更好的切除邊界;②預(yù)計保肢治療后的結(jié)果優(yōu)于截肢治療[111-113]。禁忌證包括:①無法達到滿意的切除邊界;②腫瘤侵及坐骨神經(jīng)及髂血管致使無法保留有功能的肢體;③術(shù)中無法切除的廣泛轉(zhuǎn)移瘤[114]。
5.2.2 外科邊界:對于任何病理類型和分級的骨肉瘤,首選初始治療方案均為切緣陰性的廣泛切除。
位于骨盆的骨肉瘤常導(dǎo)致高復(fù)發(fā)率和低生存率,完整徹底地切除骨肉瘤是長期生存的前提,切除邊緣殘留的腫瘤組織和局部復(fù)發(fā)率有關(guān),且可能導(dǎo)致較差的治療結(jié)果。多數(shù)研究表明廣泛切除邊界可以降低術(shù)后的局部復(fù)發(fā)率,但是鮮有文獻定義截骨邊界究竟距離腫瘤邊緣多少屬于安全邊界。在一些著名的教科書上建議截骨邊界距離腫瘤至少3 cm以上才能保證切除邊緣無腫瘤殘留[115,116]。但是Andreou等[117]統(tǒng)計1355例接受保肢治療的骨肉瘤患者治療結(jié)果后否定了截骨范圍大于3 cm的必要性,認為在廣泛切除腫瘤的前提下,截骨量與局部復(fù)發(fā)率并沒有關(guān)系。相反截骨量越少,保肢后的關(guān)節(jié)功能會相對越好[118,119]。
5.2.3 Ⅰ區(qū)骨肉瘤切除后重建:單純累及Ⅰ區(qū)的腫瘤如不侵及骶髂關(guān)節(jié)和髖臼區(qū),切除后骨盆連續(xù)性仍能得到保留。使用帶或不帶血管蒂的自體游離腓骨重建骨缺損是目前最常用的方法[120]。骨愈合后可達到生物重建的效果。結(jié)合內(nèi)固定可以降低植骨段骨折風(fēng)險,使患者早期負重活動。
5.2.4 Ⅱ區(qū)骨肉瘤切除后重建:髖臼周圍腫瘤切除后必須進行重建,如不重建會導(dǎo)致骨盆不穩(wěn)[121]。較多文獻顯示重建后的患者MSTS功能評分更高[122-124]。然而由于Ⅱ區(qū)的解剖結(jié)構(gòu)較復(fù)雜,累及Ⅱ區(qū)(髖臼周圍)的骨肉瘤切除重建術(shù)后功能損失較大,并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率也較高[112,125-129]。手術(shù)相關(guān)的并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率文獻報道可達30%~90%[129-131]。一些文獻報道了保肢術(shù)后的生活質(zhì)量,雖然Ⅱ區(qū)切除后的重建方法較多,包括關(guān)節(jié)融合、髖關(guān)節(jié)移位、異體骨重建、假關(guān)節(jié)重建、加強環(huán)重建和假體重建等[128-131],但是至今仍沒有一種理想的重建方法[132-134]。
髖關(guān)節(jié)融合是以犧牲髖關(guān)節(jié)活動度來重建骨盆穩(wěn)定性。術(shù)后常伴隨發(fā)生步態(tài)異常和長期疼痛。治療效果通常較差[112]。Canpanna等[135]建議可以建立髂股骨假關(guān)節(jié)來取代關(guān)節(jié)融合,其研究中的患者治療結(jié)果與融合相似,但假關(guān)節(jié)愈合更快,技術(shù)要求更低且并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率也更低。
異體骨結(jié)合或不結(jié)合假體重建能夠恢復(fù)假體長度,并且手術(shù)后獲得較好的功能結(jié)果。但是全部由異體骨重建時要求與宿主骨的貼合以提高骨愈合率和減少術(shù)后骨折發(fā)生,間接地延長了手術(shù)時間并提高了手術(shù)技術(shù)要求,且術(shù)后可能發(fā)生感染、排異等并發(fā)癥[122,123]。Christian等[136]研究發(fā)現(xiàn)兒童和青少年接受異體骨重建后的MSTS評分明顯高于成年人。
Hoffmann等[127]嘗試將在切除Ⅱ區(qū)骨肉瘤后,利用鉚釘和縫線將股骨頭移位至髂骨殘端。雖然術(shù)后肢體會有5~12 cm的短縮,但是患者身體、社會和情感功能恢復(fù)良好。疼痛和肢體殘疾等并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率較異體骨或假體重建低。
髖關(guān)節(jié)置換的假體重建是目前最常使用的重建術(shù)方法。假體遠端置換髖關(guān)節(jié),近端針對不同的腫瘤切除邊緣有不同的固定設(shè)計,包括:鞍狀假體、定制型半骨盆假體和組配式假體。重建時可結(jié)合異體骨移植填補過大的骨缺損。雖然也發(fā)現(xiàn)較高的并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率,但是假體重建髖關(guān)節(jié)后的功能結(jié)果較假關(guān)節(jié)和半骨盆截肢好得多。
5.2.5 Ⅲ區(qū)骨肉瘤切除后不用重建:Ⅲ區(qū)包括位于坐骨與恥骨的骨肉瘤在切除后不要求重建,Ham等[137]研究顯示術(shù)后患者肢體功能較滿意。利用自體帶血管蒂腓骨或異體骨重建骨盆連續(xù)性,也是可供選擇的治療方案。
5.2.6 Ⅳ區(qū)骨肉瘤切除后使用脊柱釘棒系統(tǒng)重建:Ⅳ區(qū)腫瘤位于骶骨翼,在保證滿意的切除邊緣的前提下,常需要切除骶髂關(guān)節(jié),所以腫瘤切除術(shù)后需要重建骨盆的連續(xù)性,避免肢體短縮畸形、疼痛和恥骨聯(lián)合分離等并發(fā)癥[138]。釘棒系統(tǒng)是常用的方法,內(nèi)固定周圍的軟組織瘢痕可以有助于維持釘棒內(nèi)固定系統(tǒng)的長期穩(wěn)定性。??稍趦?nèi)固定周圍輔以骨水泥或植骨提升穩(wěn)定性,降低術(shù)后內(nèi)固定失敗的發(fā)生率。Guo等[139]在治療骨盆Ⅰ+Ⅳ區(qū)骨肉瘤患者時,廣泛切除腫瘤后用椎弓根釘棒系統(tǒng)重建后達到滿意的治療效果,所有患者在術(shù)后2周內(nèi)行走并且沒有發(fā)生任何重建相關(guān)的并發(fā)癥。
5.2.7 半骨盆截肢術(shù):適用于瘤體過大、侵犯范圍較廣、不符合保肢指征的病例。半骨盆截肢作為針對涉及大腿、腹股溝及髖臼周圍區(qū)域的巨大骨盆腫瘤的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)治療手段已有數(shù)十年之久。骨盆的切除范圍可以根據(jù)腫瘤范圍進行調(diào)整,為了達到滿意的切除的邊界,擴大的半骨盆切除范圍可達到骶骨神經(jīng)裂孔。半骨盆截骨后可用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的前側(cè)或后側(cè)肌瓣覆蓋殘端,如果腫瘤從后方侵犯臀部及大腿上段,股管未受侵,建議優(yōu)先使用前側(cè)股直肌肌瓣覆蓋[140]。5.2.8局部復(fù)發(fā):局部復(fù)發(fā)的骨盆骨肉瘤應(yīng)視是否轉(zhuǎn)移,化療是否敏感等因素決定是否進行手術(shù)。由于骨盆的解剖結(jié)構(gòu)較特殊,達到滿意的切除邊界難度較大,局部復(fù)發(fā)率30%~60%,較四肢骨肉瘤高[112,141-144]。Fuchs等[142]回顧性分析了單中心骨盆骨肉瘤患者的治療效果,發(fā)現(xiàn)局部復(fù)發(fā)和遠處轉(zhuǎn)移都是降低生存率的風(fēng)險因素,且對局部復(fù)發(fā)病例是否進行手術(shù)和進行何種手術(shù)對生存率沒有明顯影響。
5.3.1 手術(shù)入路的選擇:正確的骶骨腫瘤手術(shù)入路可以減少術(shù)中出血、減少術(shù)后并發(fā)癥,同時幫助術(shù)者順利的完成手術(shù)過程。目前采用的的手術(shù)入路主要有單純前方入路、單純后方入路和前后方聯(lián)合入路等。單純前方入路較為常用途徑是腹膜外途徑,也可經(jīng)腹腔途徑。一般認為前方入路適用于S3及其以上高位的腫瘤,尤其適用于腫瘤向骶前生長的情況。單純后方入路適用于對病變局限的骶骨腫瘤進行較為徹底的切除術(shù)。對于累及S2及以上的腫瘤或瘤體明顯向前突入盆腔的腫瘤采用前后聯(lián)合入路手術(shù),能充分暴露骶骨的前后側(cè)及其邊緣,容易達到腫瘤廣泛邊界切除,并能減少出血、盆腔臟器損傷等并發(fā)癥[145]。因此,前后方聯(lián)合入路是目前臨床上最常采用的方式。當(dāng)遇到骶骨固定的巨大腫瘤時可考慮采用會陰部聯(lián)合入路[146,147]。對病灶累及較高骶椎節(jié)段或全骶骨受累者,宜采用前后方聯(lián)合入路[145]。
5.3.2 手術(shù)方式的選擇:骶骨腫瘤手術(shù)風(fēng)險大,并發(fā)癥多,因此選擇合適的手術(shù)方式不僅可以減少術(shù)中術(shù)后并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生,而且可以提高患者術(shù)后生活質(zhì)量。北京大學(xué)人民醫(yī)院骨與軟組織腫瘤中心郭衛(wèi)主任醫(yī)師根據(jù)Ennecking骨盆分區(qū)制定不同的手術(shù)方式:累及Ⅰ+Ⅳ區(qū)采用釘棒系統(tǒng)內(nèi)固定、自體腓骨或髂骨植骨或者采用釘棒系統(tǒng)聯(lián)合骨水泥重建骨盆環(huán)穩(wěn)定性;累及Ⅰ+Ⅱ+Ⅳ區(qū)采用半盆離斷、釘棒聯(lián)合半骨盆假體重建或者自體股骨頭植骨聯(lián)合半骨盆假體重建;累及Ⅰ+Ⅱ+Ⅲ+Ⅳ區(qū)采用半盆離斷、釘棒聯(lián)合半骨盆假體重建或者自體股骨頭聯(lián)合半骨盆假體重建。高分化的骶骨骨肉瘤與良性骨腫瘤難以區(qū)分,若采取局部切除術(shù)可能會導(dǎo)致局部復(fù)發(fā)。因此,手術(shù)前明確患者腫瘤類型是十分重要的。若為高分化骶骨骨肉瘤也應(yīng)采取較廣的手術(shù)邊緣[139,148]。
5.3.3 術(shù)后穩(wěn)定性重建:骶骨不僅是骨盆環(huán)的重要組成部分,而且還有支撐脊椎的功能。因此,重建缺損與切除腫瘤一樣重要。Simpson等[147]認為只要保持1/2的S1節(jié)段的完整性即可保持骨盆環(huán)穩(wěn)定。骨盆Ⅰ+Ⅳ區(qū)切除重建:在腫瘤累及骨盆Ⅰ+Ⅳ區(qū)的病例中,可應(yīng)用釘棒系統(tǒng)重建髂骨腫瘤切除后的缺損。釘棒系統(tǒng)周圍的軟組織瘢痕可以有助于維持釘棒內(nèi)固定系統(tǒng)的長期穩(wěn)定性。對于年輕患者應(yīng)進行植骨,可根據(jù)缺損的大小選擇兩段腓骨植于L5和髂骨之間,或者植于骶骨和髂骨之間。腓骨要插入骶骨和髂骨的松質(zhì)骨中,并且與固定棒平行。移植的腓骨逐漸與骶骨和髂骨融合。此外,也可在對側(cè)髂骨取骨或取切下髂骨翼上的殘存骨,應(yīng)用鋼絲或螺釘固定于骨缺損區(qū)。單純應(yīng)用帶血管蒂或不帶血管蒂的游離自體腓骨移植是髂骨Ⅰ區(qū)腫瘤切除后重建骨盆環(huán)連續(xù)性最常用的方法。骨愈合后可達到生物重建的效果。這種方法也存在許多缺點,包括固定不牢靠、不能早期下地、植骨端不愈合、移植的腓骨骨折等。對于骶髂骨腫瘤切除后的骨缺損,術(shù)中游離移植自體腓骨后,同時行釘棒系統(tǒng)內(nèi)固定,術(shù)后骨盆穩(wěn)定性好、不需要額外的支持就可以獲得滿意的步態(tài)。
5.3.4 手術(shù)并發(fā)癥及預(yù)防措施
5.3.4 .1術(shù)中出血:骶骨腫瘤手術(shù)失血較多,尤其是高位骶骨的次全截除或全切術(shù)有可能發(fā)生失血性休克。因此,術(shù)前應(yīng)做好充分準(zhǔn)備:備好充足血源;電刀的使用可以加速凝血;術(shù)中開放2個或2個以上靜脈通路并詳細記錄術(shù)中出血量、尿量以及液體輸入量;游離神經(jīng)出血較多時快速加壓輸血;術(shù)中先處理出血少部位后處理出血多部位。另外,對于低位腫瘤,一般無需結(jié)扎髂內(nèi)血管;對于高位腫瘤,前路手術(shù)可行雙側(cè)髂內(nèi)動脈栓塞或經(jīng)前路結(jié)扎雙側(cè)髂內(nèi)動脈,減少出血的同時充分分離腫瘤前方組織。對巨大或高位骶骨腫瘤切除患者采用控制性低血壓麻醉或者低溫低壓麻醉[145]。若術(shù)前血管造影顯示瘤體血供不豐富可以考慮不行血管栓塞。國內(nèi)外學(xué)者認為:使用球囊擴張導(dǎo)管(BDC)術(shù)中暫時阻斷腹主動脈可取得很好的效果[149-151]。
5.3.4 .2神經(jīng)功能損傷:骶骨腫瘤尤其是高位腫瘤切除術(shù)后的一個問題就是大小便失禁或(和)行走困難。一般來講,僅保留雙側(cè)S1神經(jīng)可保持正常步態(tài)但將無法控制括約肌并且失去正常的腸道和膀胱功能;保留雙側(cè)S1、S2神經(jīng),患者可能保持正常腸道功能(40%)以及正常膀胱功能(25%);保留雙側(cè)S1、S2神經(jīng)及單側(cè)S3神經(jīng),患者可能保持正常腸道功能(67%)以及正常膀胱功能(60%);保留雙側(cè)S1~S3神經(jīng),患者可能保持正常腸道功能(100%)以及正常膀胱功能(69%);保留單側(cè)S1~S5神經(jīng),患者可能保持正常腸道功能(87%)以及正常膀胱功能(89%);單側(cè)S1~S5神經(jīng)切除后同側(cè)會陰部感覺麻木,但不影響性功能,術(shù)中僅保留了單側(cè)骶神經(jīng)根,而將對側(cè)L5~S5神經(jīng)根連同半邊骶骨全部切除,患者保持正常的膀胱和直腸功能[152,153]。因此,術(shù)中保留神經(jīng)數(shù)目越多,術(shù)后患者神經(jīng)功能越好。
總之,骶骨骨肉瘤的外科治療首先要明確手術(shù)目的。對于術(shù)者而言,手術(shù)切除方式取決于腫瘤體積、腫瘤累及范圍等;對于患者而言,術(shù)后神經(jīng)功能的需求也是臨床治療應(yīng)當(dāng)著重考慮的方面。因此,術(shù)前應(yīng)當(dāng)告知患者各種手術(shù)方式所帶來的利弊,醫(yī)患雙方及時溝通。
5.3.4 .3射頻消融技術(shù):對于骨盆骶骨的骨肉瘤,手術(shù)切除無法達到的外科手術(shù)邊界可以通過計算機導(dǎo)航技術(shù)精確定位射頻消融范圍對局部病灶進行治療,從而緩解患者不適癥狀,減小手術(shù)創(chuàng)傷,改善患者生活質(zhì)量。同樣,對于不愿進行廣泛切除手術(shù)的患者和合并肺轉(zhuǎn)移的原發(fā)骨盆骶骨骨肉瘤也可以采取射頻消融的方式進行局部治療[154]。
5.4.1 切除邊界的選擇:發(fā)生于脊柱活動節(jié)段的原發(fā)或繼發(fā)骨肉瘤,在可能的情況下均應(yīng)選擇邊緣陰性的全脊椎腫瘤整塊切除術(shù)[154-161]。
脊柱骨肉瘤占所有骨肉瘤3%左右[162-164],常見于胸腰椎,也可見于頸椎[165]。骨骼肌肉系統(tǒng)的原發(fā)惡性腫瘤需施行廣泛的手術(shù)切除并獲得陰性邊界[166]。由于脊柱解剖的特異性,早期手術(shù)只能做到腫瘤刮除、囊內(nèi)切除及腫瘤分塊切除等病灶內(nèi)切除方法。但這些手術(shù)方法導(dǎo)致腫瘤切除不徹底,易出現(xiàn)腫瘤術(shù)后復(fù)發(fā)及遠處轉(zhuǎn)移,導(dǎo)致預(yù)后不良[155,159,167,168]。
目前隨著手術(shù)技術(shù)的進步,邊緣陰性的全脊椎腫瘤整塊切除已成為脊柱腫瘤的治療金標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。最近幾個相對大樣本的病例研究顯示[169-173]在全脊椎切除的基礎(chǔ)上對骨肉瘤進行廣泛切除或至少邊緣切除能最大限度地避免因手術(shù)操作帶來的瘤細胞污染,對降低術(shù)后腫瘤局部復(fù)發(fā)率、提高患者生存率有著顯著的積極作用。
脊柱骨肉瘤的切除過程中,全脊椎切除、整塊切除和邊緣陰性切除是并行的概念,對手術(shù)技術(shù)提出了更高的要求,而腫瘤的發(fā)病部位、侵及范圍的大小及周圍的解剖結(jié)構(gòu)在一定程度上限制了手術(shù)方法的選擇。發(fā)生于胸椎及腰椎部位的骨肉瘤,Tomita脊柱腫瘤外科分期中的1~3型可采用全脊椎腫瘤整塊切除術(shù)并獲得邊緣陰性,而Tomita 4~7型的患者多需采用囊內(nèi)切除[161];而對于頸椎骨肉瘤來說,由于椎動脈系統(tǒng)以及參與臂叢形成的頸神經(jīng)根等因素存在而幾乎難以實現(xiàn)腫瘤邊緣陰性的整塊切除,目前關(guān)于頸椎骨肉瘤的整塊切除偶見個案報道[174,175],常采用矢狀切除、椎體切除及全脊椎切除等方式對腫瘤實行全切除,但切除方式仍然屬于病灶內(nèi)分塊切除,腫瘤的污染、種植難以避免,術(shù)后腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)率高[163,176]。
5.4.2 復(fù)發(fā)及轉(zhuǎn)移病例的治療:脊柱骨肉瘤具有較高的復(fù)發(fā)率及轉(zhuǎn)移率,復(fù)發(fā)灶及轉(zhuǎn)移灶的處理依據(jù)患者的具體情況和病灶的具體位置來決定。
目前的多個系列脊柱骨肉瘤病例報道均指出脊柱骨肉瘤外科術(shù)后的復(fù)發(fā)率與初次手術(shù)的手術(shù)方式密切相關(guān),總體復(fù)發(fā)率為27%~60%,而邊緣陰性術(shù)后的腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)率為0~6%[169,171,172],雖然術(shù)前及術(shù)后的化療及放療也會影響復(fù)發(fā)率,但初次手術(shù)外科邊界仍然是骨肉瘤復(fù)發(fā)的重要風(fēng)險因素。
在個體情況許可的情況下,即使是多次復(fù)發(fā),也應(yīng)嘗試切除所有可切除的轉(zhuǎn)移灶,部分患者可獲得更多的治療選擇及更長的生存期[177]。若復(fù)發(fā)性骨肉瘤為孤立肺轉(zhuǎn)移灶,則治療主要為手術(shù)切除。
5.4.3 脊柱骨肉瘤切除后的穩(wěn)定性重建:幾乎所有的脊柱骨肉瘤在切除后都應(yīng)進行脊柱穩(wěn)定性的重建。
脊柱作為人體的中軸骨骼,在受到腫瘤破壞及外科切除后,重建穩(wěn)定性是必須完成的手術(shù)步驟。脊柱的重建包括前中柱重建及后柱的重建[169,172,178],后柱的重建國內(nèi)外主要使用椎弓根螺釘,國內(nèi)前中柱的重建方法主要為鈦網(wǎng)支撐,考慮到骨肉瘤的高復(fù)發(fā)性及轉(zhuǎn)移性,鈦網(wǎng)內(nèi)很少使用瘤骨滅活再植、自體腓骨移植或異體骨等生物重建方式,而是填充骨水泥等化合物材料。
[1] Youn P,Milano MT,Constine LS,et al.Long-term causespecific mortality in survivors of adolescent and young adult bone and soft tissue sarcoma:a population-based study of 28,844 patients.Cancer,2014,120(15):2334-2342.[2]Klein MJ,Siegal GP.Osteosarcoma:anatomic and histologic variants.Am J Clin Pathol,2006,125(4):555-581.
[3] Antonescu CR,Huvos AG.Low-grade osteogenic sarcoma arising in medullary and surface osseous locations.Am J Clin Pathol,2000,114 Suppl:S90-S103.
[4] Sheth DS,Yasko AW,Raymond AK,et al.Conventional and dedifferentiated parosteal osteosarcoma.Diagnosis,treatment,and outcome.Cancer,1996,78(10):2136-2145.
[5] Bertoni F,Bacchini P,Staals EL,et al.Dedifferentiated parosteal osteosarcoma:the experience of the RizzoliⅠnstitute.Cancer,2005,103(11):2373-2382.
[6] Staals EL,Bacchini P,Bertoni F.High-grade surface osteosarcoma:a review of 25 cases from the RizzoliⅠnstitute.Cancer,2008,112(7):1592-1599.
[7] Winkler K,Beron G,Kotz R,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteogenic sarcoma:results of a Cooperative German/Austrian study.J Clin Oncol,1984,2(6):617-624.
[8] Bacci G,Longhi A,Ferrari S,et al.Prognostic significance of serum lactate dehydrogenase in osteosarcoma of the extremity:experience at Rizzoli on 1421 patients treated over the last 30 years.Tumori,2004,90(5):478-484.
[9] Bacci G,Longhi A,Versari M,et al.Prognostic factors for osteosarcoma of the extremity treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy:15-year experience in 789 patients treated at a single institution.Cancer,2006,106(5):1154-1161.
[10] Whelan JS,Jinks RC,McTiernan A,et al.Survival from high-grade localised extremity osteosarcoma:combined results and prognostic factors from three European OsteosarcomaⅠntergroup randomised controlled trials.Ann Oncol,2012,23(6):1607-1616.
[11] Altaf S,Enders F,Jeavons E,et al.High-BMⅠat diagnosis is associated with inferior survival in patients with osteosarcoma:a report from the Children's Oncology Group.Pediatr Blood Cancer,2013,60(12):2042-2046.
[12] Collins M,Wilhelm M,Conyers R,et al.Benefits and adverse events in younger versus older patients receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteosarcoma:findings from a meta-analysis.J Clin Oncol,2013,31(18):2303-2312.
[13] Ferrari S,Bertoni F,Mercuri M,et al.Predictive factors of disease-free survival for non-metastatic osteosarcoma of the extremity:an analysis of 300 patients treated at the RizzoliⅠnstitute.Ann Oncol,2001,12(8):1145-1150.
[14] Bacci G,Briccoli A,Ferrari S,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteosarcoma of the extremities with synchronous lung metastases:treatment with cisplatin,adriamycin and high dose of methotrexate and ifosfamide.Oncol Rep,2000,7(2):339-346.
[15] HeckRKJr,PeabodyTD,SimonMA.Stagingofprimarymalignanciesofbone.CACancerJClin,2006,56(6):366-375.
[16] Bernthal NM,Federman N,Eilber FR,et al.Long-term results(>25 years)of a randomized,prospective clinical trial evaluating chemotherapy in patients with high-grade,operable osteosarcoma.Cancer,2012,118(23):5888-5893.
[17] Bielack SS,Kempf-Bielack B,Delling G,et al.Prognostic factors in high-grade osteosarcoma of the extremities or trunk:an analysis of 1,702 patients treated on neoadjuvant cooperative osteosarcoma study group protocols.J Clin Oncol,2002,20(3):776-790.
[18] Davis AM,Bell RS,Goodwin PJ.Prognostic factors in osteosarcoma:a critical review.J Clin Oncol,1994,12(2):423-431.
[19] Daw NC,Billups CA,Rodriguez-Galindo C,et al.Metastatic osteosarcoma.Cancer,2006,106(2):403-412.
[20] Liu PT,Valadez SD,Chivers FS,et al.Anatomically based guidelines for core needle biopsy of bone tumors:implications for limb-sparing surgery.Radiographics,2007,27(1):189-205.
[21] Huang AJ,Kattapuram SV.Musculoskeletal neoplasms:biopsy and intervention.Radiol Clin North Am,2011,49(6):1287-1305.
[22] Ashford RU,McCarthy SW,Scolyer RA,et al.Surgical biopsy with intra-operative frozen section.An accurate and cost-effective method for diagnosis of musculoskeletal sarcomas.J Bone Joint Surg Br,2006,88(9):1207-1211.
[23] Skrzynski MC,Biermann JS,Montag A,et al.Diagnostic accuracy and charge-savings of outpatient core needle biopsy compared with open biopsy of musculoskeletal tumors.J Bone Joint SurgAm,1996,78(5):644-649.
[24] Welker JA,Henshaw RM,Jelinek J,et al.The percutaneous needle biopsy is safe and recommended in the diagnosis of musculoskeletal masses.Cancer,2000,89(12):2677-2686.
[25] Mitsuyoshi G,Naito N,Kawai A,et al.Accurate diagnosis of musculoskeletal lesions by core needle biopsy.J Surg Oncol,2006,94(1):21-27.
[26] Adams SC,Potter BK,Pitcher DJ,et al.Office-based core needle biopsy of bone and soft tissue malignancies:an accurate alternative to open biopsy with infrequent complications.Clin Orthop Relat Res,2010,468(10):2774-2780.
[27] Davies NM,Livesley PJ,Cannon SR.Recurrence of an osteosarcoma in a needle biopsy track.J Bone Joint Surg Br,1993,75(6):977-978.
[28] Saghieh S,Masrouha KZ,Musallam KM,et al.The risk of local recurrence along the core-needle biopsy tract in patients with bone sarcomas.Ⅰowa Orthop J,2010,30:80-83.[29]Marulanda GA,Henderson ER,Johnson DA,et al.Orthopedic surgery options for the treatment of primary osteosarcoma.Cancer Control,2008,15(1):13-20.
[30] Bacci G,Ferrari S,Lari S,et al.Osteosarcoma of the limb.Amputation or limb salvage in patients treated by neoadjuvantchemotherapy.JBoneJointSurgBr,2002,84(1):88-92.[31]Mavrogenis AF,Abati CN,Romagnoli C,et al.Similar survival but better function for patients after limb salvage versus amputation for distal tibia osteosarcoma.Clin Orthop Relat Res,2012,470(6):1735-1748.
[32] Simon MA,Aschliman MA,Thomas N,et al.Limb-salvage treatment versus amputation for osteosarcoma of the distal end of the femur.1986.J Bone Joint Surg Am,2005,87(12):2822.
[33] Aksnes LH,Bauer HC,Jebsen NL,et al.Limb-sparing surgery preserves more function than amputation:a Scandinavian sarcoma group study of 118 patients.J Bone Joint Surg Br,2008,90(6):786-794.
[34] Nagarajan R,Neglia JP,Clohisy DR,et al.Limb salvage and amputation in survivors of pediatric lower-extremity bone tumors:what are the long-term implications?J Clin Oncol,2002,20(22):4493-4501.
[35] Link MP,Goorin AM,Miser AW,et al.The effect of adjuvant chemotherapy on relapse-free survival in patients with osteosarcoma of the extremity.N Engl J Med,1986,314(25):1600-1606.
[36] Eilber F,Giuliano A,Eckardt J,et al.Adjuvant chemotherapy for osteosarcoma:a randomized prospective trial.J Clin Oncol,1987,5(1):21-26.
[37] Link MP,Goorin AM,Horowitz M,et al.Adjuvant chemotherapy of high-grade osteosarcoma of the extremity.Updated results of the Multi-Ⅰnstitutional Osteosarcoma Study.Clin Orthop Relat Res,1991,(270):8-14.
[38] Meyers PA,Heller G,Healey J,et al.Chemotherapy for nonmetastatic osteogenic sarcoma:the Memorial Sloan-Kettering experience.J Clin Oncol,1992,10(1):5-15.
[39] Goorin AM,Schwartzentruber DJ,Devidas M,et al.Presurgical chemotherapy compared with immediate surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy for nonmetastatic osteosarcoma:Pediatric Oncology Group Study POG-8651.J Clin Oncol,2003,21(8):1574-1580.
[40] Bramwell VH,Burgers M,Sneath R,et al.A comparison of two short intensive adjuvant chemotherapy regimens in operable osteosarcoma of limbs in children and young adults:the first study of the European OsteosarcomaⅠntergroup.J Clin Oncol,1992,10(10):1579-1591.
[41] Souhami RL,Craft AW,Van der Eijken JW,et al.Randomised trial of two regimens of chemotherapy in operable osteosarcoma:a study of the European OsteosarcomaⅠntergroup.Lancet,1997,350(9082):911-917.
[42] Fuchs N,Bielack SS,Epler D,et al.Long-term results of the co-operative German-Austrian-Swiss osteosarcoma study group's protocol COSS-86 of intensive multidrug chemotherapy and surgery for osteosarcoma of the limbs.Ann Oncol,1998,9(8):893-899.
[43] Bacci G,Ferrari S,Bertoni F,et al.Long-term outcome for patients with nonmetastatic osteosarcoma of the extremity treated at the istituto ortopedico rizzoli according to the istituto ortopedico rizzoli/osteosarcoma-2 protocol:an updated report.J Clin Oncol,2000,18(24):4016-4027.
[44] Bacci G,Briccoli A,Ferrari S,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteosarcoma of the extremity:long-term results of the Rizzoli's 4th protocol.Eur J Cancer,2001,37(16):2030-2039.
[45] Ferrari S,Smeland S,Mercuri M,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy with high-doseⅠfosfamide,high-dose methotrexate,cisplatin,and doxorubicin for patients with localized osteosarcoma of the extremity:a joint study by theⅠtalian and Scandinavian Sarcoma Groups.J Clin Oncol,2005,23(34):8845-8852.
[46] Lewis ⅠJ,Nooij MA,Whelan J,et al.Ⅰmprovement in histologic response but not survival in osteosarcoma patients treated with intensified chemotherapy:a randomized phaseⅠⅠⅠtrial of the European Osteosarcoma Ⅰntergroup.J Natl CancerⅠnst,2007,99(2):112-128.
[47] Meyers PA,Schwartz CL,Krailo MD,et al.Osteosarcoma:the addition of muramyl tripeptide to chemotherapy improves overall survival--a report from the Children's Oncol-ogy Group.J Clin Oncol,2008,26(4):633-638.
[48] Basaran M,Bavbek ES,Saglam S,et al.A phase ⅠⅠstudy of cisplatin,ifosfamide and epirubicin combination chemotherapy in adults with nonmetastatic and extremity osteosarcomas.Oncology,2007,72(3-4):255-260.
[49] Le Deley MC,Guinebretière JM,Gentet JC,et al.SFOP OS94:a randomised trial comparing preoperative high-dose methotrexate plus doxorubicin to high-dose methotrexate plus etoposide and ifosfamide in osteosarcoma patients.Eur J Cancer,2007,43(4):752-761.
[50] Provisor AJ,Ettinger LJ,Nachman JB,et al.Treatment of nonmetastatic osteosarcoma of the extremity with preoperative and postoperative chemotherapy:a report from the Children's Cancer Group.J Clin Oncol,1997,15(1):76-84.
[51] Bacci G,Mercuri M,Longhi A,et al.Grade of chemotherapy-induced necrosis as a predictor of local and systemic control in 881 patients with non-metastatic osteosarcoma of the extremities treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy in a single institution.Eur J Cancer,2005,41(14):2079-2085.
[52] Chou AJ,Kleinerman ES,Krailo MD,et al.Addition of muramyl tripeptide to chemotherapy for patients with newly diagnosed metastatic osteosarcoma:a report from the Children's Oncology Group.Cancer,2009,115(22):5339-5348.[53]Cesari M,Alberghini M,Vanel D,et al.Periosteal osteosarcoma:a single-institution experience.Cancer,2011,117(8):1731-1735.
[54] Grimer RJ,Bielack S,Flege S,et al.Periosteal osteosarcoma--a European review of outcome.Eur J Cancer,2005,41(18):2806-2811.
[55] Bacci G,Ferrari S,Tienghi A,et al.A comparison of methods of loco-regional chemotherapy combined with systemic chemotherapy as neo-adjuvant treatment of osteosarcoma of the extremity.Eur J Surg Oncol,2001,27(1):98-104.
[56] Smeland S,Müller C,Alvegard TA,et al.Scandinavian Sarcoma Group Osteosarcoma Study SSG VⅠⅠⅠ:prognostic factors for outcome and the role of replacement salvage chemotherapy for poor histological responders.Eur J Cancer,2003,39(4):488-494.
[57] Winkler K,Beron G,Delling G,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy of osteosarcoma:results of a randomized cooperativetrial(COSS-82)withsalvagechemotherapybasedonhistologicaltumorresponse.JClinOncol,1988,6(2):329-337.
[58] Smeland S,Bruland OS,Hjorth L,et al.Results of the Scandinavian Sarcoma Group XⅠV protocol for classical osteosarcoma:63 patients with a minimum follow-up of 4 years.Acta Orthop,2011,82(2):211-216.
[59] Ferrari S,Ruggieri P,Cefalo G,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy with methotrexate,cisplatin,and doxorubicin with or without ifosfamide in nonmetastatic osteosarcoma of the extremity:an Ⅰtalian sarcoma group trialⅠSG/OS-1.J Clin Oncol,2012,30(17):2112-2118.
[60] CiernikⅠF,Niemierko A,Harmon DC,et al.Proton-based radiotherapy for unresectable or incompletely resected osteosarcoma.Cancer,2011,117(19):4522-4530.
[61] DeLaney TF,Park L,Goldberg SⅠ,et al.Radiotherapy for local control of osteosarcoma.Ⅰnt J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys,2005,61(2):492-498.
[62] Kager L,Zoubek A,P?tschger U,et al.Primary metastatic osteosarcoma:presentation and outcome of patients treated on neoadjuvant Cooperative Osteosarcoma Study Group protocols.J Clin Oncol,2003,21(10):2011-2018.
[63] Meyers PA,Heller G,Healey JH,et al.Osteogenic sarcoma with clinically detectable metastasis at initial presentation.J Clin Oncol,1993,11(3):449-453.
[64] Bacci G,Briccoli A,Mercuri M,et al.Osteosarcoma of the extremities with synchronous lung metastases:long-term results in 44 patients treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy.J Chemother,1998,10(1):69-76.
[65] Bacci G,Briccoli A,Rocca M,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteosarcoma of the extremities with metastases at presentation:recent experience at the RizzoliⅠnstitute in 57 patients treated with cisplatin,doxorubicin,and a high dose of methotrexate and ifosfamide.Ann Oncol,2003,14(7):1126-1134.
[66] Winkler K,Torggler S,Beron G,et al.Results of treatment in primary disseminated osteosarcoma.Analysis of the follow-up of patients in the cooperative osteosarcoma studies COSS-80 and COSS-82.Onkologie,1989,12(2):92-96.
[67] Bacci G,Mercuri M,Briccoli A,et al.Osteogenic sarcoma of the extremity with detectable lung metastases at presentation.Results of treatment of 23 patients with chemotherapy followed by simultaneous resection of primary and metastatic lesions.Cancer,1997,79(2):245-254.
[68] Tabone MD,Kalifa C,Rodary C,et al.Osteosarcoma recurrences in pediatric patients previously treated with intensive chemotherapy.J Clin Oncol,1994,12(12):2614-2620.[69]Saeter G,H?ie J,Stenwig AE,et al.Systemic relapse of patients with osteogenic sarcoma.Prognostic factors for long term survival.Cancer,1995,75(5):1084-1093.
[70] Ferrari S,Briccoli A,Mercuri M,et al.Postrelapse survival in osteosarcoma of the extremities:prognostic factors for long-term survival.J Clin Oncol,2003,21(4):710-715.
[71] Buddingh EP,Anninga JK,Versteegh MⅠ,et al.Prognostic factors in pulmonary metastasized high-grade osteosarcoma.Pediatr Blood Cancer,2010,54(2):216-221.
[72] Briccoli A,Rocca M,Salone M,et al.High grade osteosarcoma of the extremities metastatic to the lung:long-term results in 323 patients treated combining surgery and chemotherapy,1985-2005.Surg Oncol,2010,19(4):193-199.
[73] Bielack SS,Kempf-Bielack B,Branscheid D,et al.Second and subsequent recurrences of osteosarcoma:presentation,treatment,and outcomes of 249 consecutive cooperative osteosarcoma study group patients.J Clin Oncol,2009,27(4):557-565.
[74] Berger M,Grignani G,Ferrari S,et al.Phase 2 trial of two courses of cyclophosphamide and etoposide for relapsed high-risk osteosarcoma patients.Cancer,2009,115(13):2980-2987.
[75] Gentet JC,Brunat-Mentigny M,Demaille MC,et al.Ⅰfosfamide and etoposide in childhood osteosarcoma.A phaseⅠⅠstudy of the French Society of Paediatric Oncology.Eur J Cancer,1997,33(2):232-237.
[76]Van Winkle P,Angiolillo A,Krailo M,et al.Ⅰfosfamide,carboplatin,and etoposide(ⅠCE)reinduction chemotherapy in a large cohort of children and adolescents with recurrent/refractory sarcoma:the Children's Cancer Group(CCG)experience.Pediatr Blood Cancer,2005,44(4):338-347.
[77] Navid F,Willert JR,McCarville MB,et al.Combination of gemcitabine and docetaxel in the treatment of children and young adults with refractory bone sarcoma.Cancer,2008,113(2):419-425.
[78] Saylors RL 3rd,Stine KC,Sullivan J,et al.Cyclophosphamide plus topotecan in children with recurrent or refractory solid tumors:a Pediatric Oncology Group phase ⅠⅠstudy.J Clin Oncol,2001,19(15):3463-3469.
[79] Merimsky O,MellerⅠ,Flusser G,et al.Gemcitabine in soft tissue or bone sarcoma resistant to standard chemotherapy:a phase ⅠⅠstudy.Cancer Chemother Pharmacol,2000,45(2):177-181.
[80] Egas-Bejar D,Anderson PM,Agarwal R,et al.Theranostic profiling for actionable aberrations in advanced high risk osteosarcoma with aggressive biology reveals high molecular diversity:The human fingerprint hypothesis.Oncoscience,2014,1(2):167-179.
[81] Anderson PM,Wiseman GA,Dispenzieri A,et al.Highdose samarium-153 ethylene diamine tetramethylene phosphonate:low toxicity of skeletal irradiation in patients with osteosarcoma and bone metastases.J Clin Oncol,2002,20(1):189-196.
[82] Loeb DM,Garrett-Mayer E,Hobbs RF,et al.Dose-finding study of 153Sm-EDTMP in patients with poor-prognosis osteosarcoma.Cancer,2009,115(11):2514-2522.
[83] Grignani G,Palmerini E,Dileo P,et al.A phase ⅠⅠtrial of sorafenib in relapsed and unresectable high-grade osteosarcoma after failure of standard multimodal therapy:anⅠtalian Sarcoma Group study.Ann Oncol,2012,23(2):508-516.
[84] Lashkari A,Chow WA,Valdes F,et al.Tandem high-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous transplantation in patients with locally advanced or metastatic sarcoma.Anticancer Res,2009,29(8):3281-3288.
[85] Fagioli F,Aglietta M,TienghiA,et al.High-dose chemotherapy in the treatment of relapsed osteosarcoma:anⅠtalian sarcoma group study.J Clin Oncol,2002,20(8):2150-2156.
[86] Mei J,Zhu XZ,Wang ZY,et al.Functional outcomes and quality of life in patients with osteosarcoma treated with amputation versus limb-salvage surgery:a systematic review and meta-analysis.Arch Orthop Trauma Surg,2014,134(11):1507-1516.
[87] Bielack S,Jürgens H,Jundt G,et al.Osteosarcoma:the COSS experience.Cancer Treat Res,2009,152:289-308.
[88] Picci P.Osteosarcoma(osteogenic sarcoma).Orphanet J Rare Dis,2007,2:6.
[89] Wittig JC,Bickels J,Priebat D,et al.Osteosarcoma:a multidisciplinary approach to diagnosis and treatment.Am Fam Physician,2002,65(6):1123-1132.
[90] Bacci G,Picci P,Ruggieri P,et al.Primary chemotherapy and delayed surgery(neoadjuvant chemotherapy)for osteosarcoma of the extremities.TheⅠstituto Rizzoli Experience in 127 patients treated preoperatively with intravenous methotrexate(high versus moderate doses)and intraarterial cisplatin.Cancer,1990,65(11):2539-2553.
[91] Scully SP,Temple HT,O'Keefe RJ,et al.The surgical treatment of patients with osteosarcoma who sustain a pathologic fracture.Clin Orthop Relat Res,1996,(324):227-232.
[92] Ferrari S,Palmerini E,Staals EL,et al.The treatment of nonmetastatic high grade osteosarcoma of the extremity:review of the Ⅰtalian Rizzoli experience.Ⅰmpact on the future.Cancer Treat Res,2009,152:275-287.
[93] Vijayakumar V,Lowery R,Zhang X,et al.Pediatric osteosarcoma:a single institution's experience.South Med J,2014,107(11):671-675.
[94] 牛曉輝,蔡槱伯,張清,等.ⅡB期肢體骨肉瘤189例綜合治療臨床分析.中華外科雜志,2005,43(24):1576-1579.
[95] Dürr HR,Bakhshai Y,Rechl H,et al.Resection margins in bone tumors:what is adequate?Unfallchirurg,2014,117(7):593-599.
[96] CampanacciM,BacciG,BertoniF,etal.Thetreatmentofosteosarcoma of the extremities:twenty year's experience at theⅠstitutoOrtopedicoRizzoli.Cancer,1981,48(7):1569-1581.[97]Uchida A,Myoui A,Araki N,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for pediatric osteosarcoma patients.Cancer,1997,79(2):411-415.
[98] Jaffe N.Osteosarcoma:review of the past,impact on the future.The American experience.Cancer Treat Res,2009,152:239-262.
[99] Din?ba? FO,Koca S,Mandel NM,et al.The role of preoperative radiotherapy in nonmetastatic high-grade osteosarcoma of the extremities for limb-sparing surgery.Ⅰnt J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys,2005,62(3):820-828.
[100] 蔡槱伯,牛曉輝,張清.肢體原發(fā)成骨肉瘤綜合治療的遠期結(jié)果.中華外科雜志,2000,38(5):329-331.
[101] Ness KK,Neel MD,Kaste SC,et al.A comparison of function after limb salvage with non-invasive expandable or modular prostheses in children.Eur J Cancer,2014,50(18):3212-3220.
[102] 牛曉輝.惡性骨腫瘤外科治療的術(shù)前計劃及術(shù)后評估.中華外科雜志,2007,45(10):699-701.
[103] Lascelles BD,Dernell WS,Correa MT,et al.Ⅰmproved survival associated with postoperative wound infection in dogs treated with limb-salvage surgery for osteosarcoma.Ann Surg Oncol,2005,12(12):1073-1083.
[104] Li J,Wang Z,Guo Z,et al.Ⅰrregular osteotomy in limb salvage for juxta-articular osteosarcoma under computer-assisted navigation.J Surg Oncol,2012,106(4):411-416.
[105] Weeden S,Grimer RJ,Cannon SR,et al.The effect of local recurrence on survival in resected osteosarcoma.Eur J Cancer,2001,37(1):39-46.
[106] Takeuchi A,Lewis VO,Satcher RL,et al.What are the factors that affect survival and relapse after local recurrence of osteosarcoma?Clin Orthop Relat Res,2014,472(10):3188-3195.
[107] Goorin AM,Perez-Atayde A,Gebhardt M,et al.Weekly high-dose methotrexate and doxorubicin for osteosarcoma:the Dana-Farber CancerⅠnstitute/the Children's Hospital--study ⅠⅠⅠ.J Clin Oncol,1987,5(8):1178-1184.
[108] Simon MA,Aschliman MA,Thomas N,et al.Limb-salvage treatment versus amputation for osteosarcoma of the distal end of the femur.J Bone Joint Surg Am,1986,68(9):1331-1337.
[109] Winkler K,Beron G,Kotz R,et al.Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for osteogenic sarcoma:results of a Cooperative German/Austrian study.J Clin Oncol,1984,2(6):617-624.
[110] RougraffBT,SimonMA,KneislJS,etal.Limbsalvagecompared with amputation for osteosarcoma of the distal end of the femur.A long-term oncological,functional,and qualityof-lifestudy.JBoneJointSurgAm,1994,76(5):649-656.
[111] O'Connor MⅠ.Malignant pelvic tumors:limb-sparing resection and reconstruction.Semin Surg Oncol,1997,13(1):49-54.
[112] O'Connor MⅠ,Sim FH.Salvage of the limb in the treatment of malignant pelvic tumors.J Bone Joint Surg Am,1989,71(4):481-494.
[113] Pring ME,Weber KL,Unni KK,et al.Chondrosarcoma of the pelvis.A review of sixty-four cases.J Bone Joint Surg Am,2001,83-A(11):1630-1642.
[114] Sherman CE,O'Connor MⅠ,Sim FH.Survival,local recurrence,and function after pelvic limb salvage at 23 to 38 years of followup.Clin Orthop Relat Res,2012,470(3):712-727.
[115] CP HR.General principles of tumors.Ⅰn Canale ST(ed).Philadelphis,PA:Mosby,2003:733-792.
[116] Gitelis S MM.Principles of limb salvage surgery(ed).Philadelphia,PA:Lippincott Williams and Wikins,2001.
[117] Andreou D,Bielack SS,Carrle D,et al.The influence of tumor-and treatment-related factors on the development of local recurrence in osteosarcoma after adequate surgery.An analysis of 1355 patients treated on neoadjuvant Cooperative Osteosarcoma Study Group protocols.Ann Oncol,2011,22(5):1228-1235.
[118] Cho HS,Oh JH,HanⅠ,et al.Joint-preserving limb salvage surgery under navigation guidance.J Surg Oncol,2009,100(3):227-232.
[119] Kumta SM,Chow TC,Griffith J,et al.Classifying the location of osteosarcoma with reference to the epiphyseal plate helps determine the optimal skeletal resection in limb salvage procedures.Arch Orthop Trauma Surg,1999,119(5-6):327-331.
[120] Sakuraba M,Kimata Y,Ⅰida H,et al.Pelvic ring reconstruction with the double-barreled vascularized fibular free flap.Plast Reconstr Surg,2005,116(5):1340-1345.
[121] Gerrand CH,Wunder JS,Kandel RA,et al.Classification of positive margins after resection of soft-tissue sarcoma of the limb predicts the risk of local recurrence.J Bone Joint Surg Br,2001,83(8):1149-1155.
[122] Hillmann A,Hoffmann C,Gosheger G,et al.Tumors of the pelvis:complications after reconstruction.Arch Orthop Trauma Surg,2003,123(7):340-344.
[123] Ozaki T,Hillmann A,Bettin D,et al.High complication rates with pelvic allografts.Experience of 22 sarcoma resections.Acta Orthop Scand,1996,67(4):333-338.
[124] Yuen A,Ek ET,Choong PF.Research:Ⅰs resection of tumours involving the pelvic ring justified?:A review of 49 consecutive cases.Ⅰnt Semin Surg Oncol,2005,2(1):9.
[125] Bell RS,Davis AM,Wunder JS,et al.Allograft reconstruction of the acetabulum after resection of stage-ⅠⅠB sarcoma.Ⅰntermediate-term results.J Bone Joint Surg Am,1997,79(11):1663-1674.
[126] Frassica FJ,Chao EY,Sim FH.Special problems in limbsalvage surgery.Semin Surg Oncol,1997,13(1):55-63.
[127] Hoffmann C,Gosheger G,Gebert C,et al.Functional results and quality of life after treatment of pelvic sarcomas involving the acetabulum.J Bone Joint Surg Am,2006,88(3):575-582.
[128] Hugate RJ,Sim FH.Pelvic reconstruction techniques.Orthop Clin NorthAm,2006,37(1):85-97.
[129] Satcher RL Jr,O'Donnell RJ,Johnston JO.Reconstruction of the pelvis after resection of tumors about the acetabulum.Clin Orthop Relat Res,2003,(409):209-217.
[130] Schwameis E,Dominkus M,Krepler P,et al.Reconstruction of the pelvis after tumor resection in children and adolescents.Clin Orthop Relat Res,2002,(402):220-235.
[131] Sys G,Uyttendaele D,Poffyn B,et al.Extracorporeally irradiated autografts in pelvic reconstruction after malignant tumour resection.Ⅰnt Orthop,2002,26(3):174-178.
[132] Grimer RJ,Carter SR,Tillman RM,et al.Osteosarcoma of the pelvis.J Bone Joint Surg Br,1999,81(5):796-802.
[133] Abudu A,Grimer RJ,Cannon SR,et al.Reconstruction of the hemipelvis after the excision of malignant tumours.Complications and functional outcome of prostheses.J Bone Joint Surg Br,1997,79(5):773-779.
[134] Wirbel RJ,Schulte M,Mutschler WE.Surgical treatment of pelvic sarcomas:oncologic and functional outcome.Clin Orthop Relat Res,2001,(390):190-205.
[135] Gradinger R,Rechl H,Hipp E.Pelvic osteosarcoma.Resection,reconstruction,local control,and survival statistics.Clin Orthop Relat Res,1991,(270):149-158.
[136] Delloye C,Banse X,Brichard B,et al.Pelvic reconstruction with a structural pelvic allograft after resection of a malignant bone tumor.J Bone Joint Surg Am,2007,89(3):579-587.
[137] Ham SJ,Schraffordt Koops H,Veth RP,et al.External and internal hemipelvectomy for sarcomas of the pelvic girdle:consequences of limb-salvage treatment.Eur J Surg Oncol,1997,23(6):540-546.
[138] Campanacci M,Capanna R.Pelvic resections:the RizzoliⅠnstitute experience.Orthop Clin North Am,1991,22(1):65-86.
[139] Guo W,Sun X,Ji T,et al.Outcome of surgical treatment of pelvic osteosarcoma.J Surg Oncol,2012,106(4):406-410.
[140] Malawer MM.Musculoskeletal Cancer Surgery.Kluwer Academic Publishers,2004.
[141] Fahey M,Spanier SS,Vander Griend RA.Osteosarcoma of the pelvis.A clinical and histopathological study of twentyfive patients.J Bone Joint SurgAm,1992,74(3):321-330.
[142] Fuchs B,Hoekzema N,Larson DR,et al.Osteosarcoma of the pelvis:outcome analysis of surgical treatment.Clin Or-thop Relat Res,2009,467(2):510-518.
[143] Ham SJ,Kroon HM,Koops HS,et al.Osteosarcoma of the pelvis--oncological results of 40 patients registered by The Netherlands Committee on Bone Tumours.Eur J Surg Oncol,2000,26(1):53-60.
[144] Matsuo T,Sugita T,Sato K,et al.Clinical outcomes of 54 pelvic osteosarcomas registered by Japanese musculoskeletal oncology group.Oncology,2005,68(4-6):375-381.
[145] 陳曉亮,胡有谷,陳伯華.原發(fā)性骶骨腫瘤的手術(shù)治療.中國脊柱脊髓雜志,1998,8(2):75-77.
[146] Gitsch G,Jensen DN,Hacker NF.A combined abdominoperineal approach for the resection of a large giant cell tumor of the sacrum.Gynecol Oncol,1995,57(1):113-116.
[147] Simpson AH,Porter A,Davis A,et al.Cephalad sacral resection with a combined extended ilioinguinal and posterior approach.J Bone Joint SurgAm,1995,77(3):405-411.
[148] Liuhong W,Minming Z.Well-differentiated intraosseous osteosarcoma in the sacrum:a case report.Ⅰran J Radiol,2013,10(3):175-178.
[149] Mi C,Lu H,Liu H.Surgical excision of sacral tumors assisted by occluding the abdominal aorta with a balloon dilation catheter:a report of 3 cases.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),2005,30(20):E614-E616.
[150] Tang X,Guo W,Yang R,et al.Use of aortic balloon occlusion to decrease blood loss during sacral tumor resection.J Bone Joint SurgAm,2010,92(8):1747-1753.
[151] 徐懋,張耕,韋峰,等.球囊阻斷低位腹主動脈在腰骶骨腫瘤手術(shù)中的應(yīng)用.中國微創(chuàng)外科雜志,2010,(2):147-149.
[152] Huang L,Guo W,Yang R,et al.Proposed scoring system for evaluating neurologic deficit after sacral resection:Functional outcomes of 170 consecutive patients.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),2016,41(7):628-637.
[153] 范勝利,楊惠林,徐華中,等.骶骨腫瘤骶神經(jīng)切除后肛門直腸及膀胱排便功能的觀察.中國腫瘤臨床,2005,32(8):466-468.
[154] 鄭龍坡,蔡鄭東.射頻消融技術(shù)在骨腫瘤治療中的應(yīng)用.國際骨科學(xué)雜志,2006,27(4):220-224.
[155] Boriani S,Biagini R,DeⅠure F,et al.En bloc resections of bone tumors of the thoracolumbar spine.A preliminary report on 29 patients.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),1996,21(16):1927-1931.
[156] Boriani S,Weinstein JN,Biagini R.Primary bone tumors of the spine.Terminology and surgical staging.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),1997,22(9):1036-1044.
[157] Fisher CG,Keynan O,Boyd MC,et al.The surgical management of primary tumors of the spine:initial results of an ongoing prospective cohort study.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),2005,30(16):1899-1908.
[158] Krepler P,Windhager R,Bretschneider W,et al.Total vertebrectomy for primary malignant tumours of the spine.J Bone Joint Surg Br,2002,84(5):712-715.
[159] Liljenqvist U,Lerner T,Halm H,et al.En bloc spondylectomy in malignant tumors of the spine.Eur Spine J,2008,17(4):600-609.
[160] Mazel Ch,Grunenwald D,Laudrin P,et al.Radical excision in the management of thoracic and cervicothoracic tumors involving the spine:results in a series of 36 cases.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),2003,28(8):782-792.
[161] Tomita K,Kawahara N,Baba H,et al.Total en bloc spondylectomy.Anewsurgicaltechniqueforprimarymalignantvertebraltumors.Spine(PhilaPa1976),1997,22(3):324-333.
[162] Shives TC,Dahlin DC,Sim FH,et al.Osteosarcoma of the spine.J Bone Joint SurgAm,1986,68(5):660-668.
[163] Barwick KW,Huvos AG,Smith J.Primary osteogenic sarcoma of the vertebral column:a clinicopathologic correlation of ten patients.Cancer,1980,46(3):595-604.
[164] Tigani D,Pignatti G,Picci P,et al.Vertebral osteosarcoma.Ⅰtal J Orthop Traumatol,1988,14(1):5-13.
[165] Picci P,Mercuri M,Ferrari S,et al.Survival in high-grade osteosarcoma:improvement over 21 years at a single institution.Ann Oncol,2010,21(6):1366-1373.
[166] Krepler P,Windhager R,Toma CD,et al.Dura resection in combination with en bloc spondylectomy for primary malignant tumors of the spine.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),2003,28(17):E334-E338.
[167] Fujita T,Ueda Y,Kawahara N,et al.Local spread of metastatic vertebral tumors.A histologic study.Spine(Phila Pa 1976),1997,22(16):1905-1912.
[168] Ozaki T,Flege S,Liljenqvist U,et al.Osteosarcoma of the spine:experience of the Cooperative Osteosarcoma Study Group.Cancer,2002,94(4):1069-1077.
[169] Feng D,Yang X,Liu T,et al.Osteosarcoma of the spine:surgical treatment and outcomes.World J Surg Oncol,2013,11(1):89.
[170] Lim JB,Sharma H,MacDuff E,et al.Primary osteosarcoma of the spine:a review of 10 cases.Acta Orthop Belg,2013,79(4):457-462.
[171] Schoenfeld AJ,Hornicek FJ,Pedlow FX,et al.Osteosarcoma of the spine:experience in 26 patients treated at the Massachusetts General Hospital.Spine J,2010,10(8):708-714.
[172] Schwab J,Gasbarrini A,Bandiera S,et al.Osteosarcoma of the mobile spine.Spine,2012,37(6):E381-E386.
[173] Zils K,Bielack S,Wilhelm M,et al.Osteosarcoma of the mobile spine.Ann Oncol,2013,24(8):2190-2195.
[174] Chou D,Wang V.Two-level en bloc spondylectomy for osteosarcoma at the cervicothoracic junction.J Clin Neurosci,2009,16(5):698-700.
[175] Cohen ZR,Fourney DR,Marco RA,et al.Total cervical spondylectomy for primary osteogenic sarcoma.Case report and description of operative technique.J Neurosurg,2002,97(3 Suppl):386-392.
[176] 肖建如,袁文,滕紅林,等.前、后聯(lián)合入路全脊椎切除附加內(nèi)固定治療頸椎骨腫瘤39例報告.中華外科雜志,2005,43(12):795-798.
[177] Kempf-Bielack B,Bielack SS,Jürgens H,et al.Osteosarcoma relapse after combined modality therapy:an analysis of unselected patients in the Cooperative Osteosarcoma Study Group(COSS).J Clin Oncol,2005,23(3):559-568.
[178] Abe E,Kobayashi T,Murai H,et al.Total spondylectomy for primary malignant,aggressive benign,and solitary metastatic bone tumors of the thoracolumbar spine.J Spinal Disord,2001,14(3):237-246.