著：（美）羅德·巴內特 譯：王美仙 校：李綽

1 基礎設施的共振

彼埃爾 貝朗格（Pierre Belanger）在他的重要著作《景觀就是基礎設施》[1]中提出：20世紀的基礎設施由城市規(guī)劃者規(guī)劃，工程師設計，是一種針對連通性、流動性和服務性問題而提出的解決城市化退化和環(huán)境破壞的措施。它不僅破壞了人類完美的生活環(huán)境，還使得生物物理系統(tǒng)被壓制和邊緣化。

貝朗格提出將景觀基礎設施作為當代實踐領域的構想，重點強調了城市經(jīng)濟流動性和地球生態(tài)動力兩方面的內容。

他似乎是對的。然而，鑒于現(xiàn)今所謂的“非人類物種的轉變”（nonhuman turn）[2]，我認為我們可以進一步挖掘基礎設施的潛力?！胺侨祟愇锓N的轉變”堅持認為，人類總是與地球上的其他生物（從微生物到哺乳動物）共同進化和相互作用。唐娜 哈拉維（Donna Haraway）[3]、布魯諾 拉圖爾（Bruno Latour）[4]、蒂莫西 莫頓（Timothy Morton）[5]等都對將人類置于生物層級中的最高級提出質疑。在我自己的工作中，我主張人類和非人類物種共同生活在一個構建的世界中，他們相遇的主要場所很可能是公共空間——如果“公共空間”中包容了非人類物種[6]。這些學者堅持認為，在為拯救地球而開展的人類占有活動中，有必要考慮地球是否真的只為我們人類而存在。我們在非人類物種的世界中是怎樣的？如何從非人類物種的視角去考慮建造和管理地球系統(tǒng)？特別是城市系統(tǒng)，即這篇文章的主題。

1 郊狼果園：阿拉巴馬州的奧本小鎮(zhèn)地圖顯示了郊狼廊道與公共空間相交的位置Coyote orchard： map of Auburn, AL showing intervention locations where coyote corridors intersect with public space

2-1顯示郊狼在不同季節(jié)可獲得的食物Shows seasonal availability of coyote fodder

2 郊狼果園平面圖Coyote orchard plan

通過風景園林將這些問題納入城市思維的一種方法是擴展貝朗格的基礎設施概念?？梢钥隙ǖ氖牵行蔚幕A設施建設是一項重要工作，但其他網(wǎng)絡和系統(tǒng)也同樣重要。事實上，它們有助于我們設想出新型的基礎設施。例如，社會組織網(wǎng)絡、共享網(wǎng)絡、非物質勞動和批判性的社會和政治影響。這些系統(tǒng)與有形的基礎設施不同，但卻與其發(fā)生連接。它們聯(lián)系在一起使得我們能夠囊括許多理論家所說的預知情感和激情的生活維度，從而推動政治和經(jīng)濟發(fā)展。例如，社會理論家珊妲 慕孚（Chantal Mouffe）在對社會生活的解讀中分析了政治激動機制，認為“激情”是政治決策的驅動因素[7]。

通過與非人類物種建立有意義的連接，人類如何面對、運作、應用并建立自己的主體性會成為更為短暫的基礎設施建設的一部分，這是作家兼策展人納托 湯普森（Nato Thompson）稱之為共振基礎設施的一個條件[8]，亦是本文的主題。

在過去的10年里，我負責了一個名為“雷達之下”（Under the Radar）的小型項目。它包含了一系列的設計調研，從不同視角探討了人類與非人類物種之間的情感相遇。本文簡要論述了其中的4個問題，試圖梳理出將風景園林稱之為相遇藝術的真正含義。[6]。在這些項目中，公共空間成為一個設計領域，在這個領域中，人類和非人類物種的集合變得明顯和刻意，各個部分都是混合的，而且它們的自由性更強。

2 郊狼

該項目探索了美國阿拉巴馬州的奧本小鎮(zhèn)中人類與非人類物種之間的界限。奧本的郊狼數(shù)量約有600只[9]。當郊狼數(shù)量過多時，奧本野生動物服務辦公室和保護部會定期捕捉郊狼。這些被捕捉的郊狼會被戊巴比妥藥物殺死，而不是被重新安置或釋放。正如一名野生動物官員在一次公開會議上所說，“只要一批郊狼被弄走了，新的郊狼就會進來，它們永遠在這里。奧本是一個開放的綠色空間城市——郊狼愛它”[10]。

雖然阿拉巴馬奧本的郊狼，被歸為城市、遠郊和農村的物種，但這種人類分類學與他們的生活和運動卻沒什么關系。郊狼（Canis latrans）是迅速發(fā)展的確定向量，它們的進化軌跡已經(jīng)跨越物種邊界，發(fā)展成為與人類持續(xù)相遇的狀態(tài)。這次相遇的主要領域是公共開放空間，即城市河流廊道、公園邊緣的林地或城市公墓。薩克拉門托動物保護研究所的卡米拉 ?？怂梗–amilla Fox）指出：盡管大多數(shù)人并不知道郊狼就生活在他們中間，但增進人與郊狼之間的互動是城市管理者和野生動物管理者必須面對的緊要問題。在芝加哥大都市區(qū)，多數(shù)大型綠地都被多達12只郊狼組成的一個個狼群所占據(jù)[11]。在美國的許多州，如阿拉巴馬州，郊狼被歸為“捕食者”或“毛皮獸物種”，有可能全年都會被不限量的捕殺。在阿拉巴馬州，四季都可以捕獵，而且不會限制捕獵數(shù)量。因此，風景園林師面臨的問題是如何建立一個人類與郊狼共存的世界。

我們在奧本大學的研究小組繪制了郊狼種群的運動軌跡，并確定了3個公共區(qū)域。在這3個區(qū)域中，我們可以設計干預措施促使人類和郊狼以一種原始而非常規(guī)的方式生活在一起（圖1）。在這個案例中，場地是一個位于林地郊狼廊道與奧本城市水體和污水處理服務中心之間的滯留池。在設計時，與城市水體和污水服務滯留池相鄰的地帶以及池塘本身都按照現(xiàn)代主義的園林類型進行了重組，參觀者會認為這是一個經(jīng)過設計的領域，這種做法具有目的性和友好性。矩形構圖創(chuàng)建了直線、空間軸線以及高高的擋墻。池塘被設計成一個大型的矩形水面。在這個歐幾里得式空間里，引入了一個專門為動物和昆蟲提供食物的種植策略，郊狼也會吃這些動物、昆蟲和植物（圖2）。

通過對郊狼的腸道和糞便分析，可以看出這個種植方案全年為郊狼提供水果和堅果，植物的季相變化從場地北邊的春景開始，以場地南邊的秋景結束（圖3）。鄉(xiāng)土樹種和外來樹種林下都種植了冬天開花的草本植物，這些草本植物會被郊狼以及它們的獵物吃掉，特別是在食物稀少的月份。這個公共花園為周邊建筑里的員工提供了座椅、陽光和蔭涼，還吸引來了兔子、松鼠、昆蟲、鳥類和其他野生動物，而這些物種又反過來吸引郊狼，使其通過臨近的林地廊道來到這里。隨著花園或者被我們稱之為“生物果園”的自由生長，植物和動物將會在這種互動式的棲息環(huán)境中超出它們原本的空間層級。

這個小項目試圖建立一個相遇的地帶，一個人類和非人類物種集合的場所。為了明確地表達這種集合，設計師必須考慮這里的人類與這些混合“群體”都需要保持甚至加強他們的自由性。一種去除自然與社會界限的景觀包含了正在進行自我組織的集合的所有充分必要條件。為此，有必要探索拉圖爾所說的“集合——自然文化”的共同世界——其沒有按照時間線統(tǒng)一進入未來的意識，但是可以通過情感接觸和相互肯定促使物種和要素之間形成錯綜復雜的聯(lián)系和相互支持。為人類和非人類物種共生而工作的風景園林師將生命視為生長和變化的過程。她將樹、孩子、巖石、天空、蜜蜂、郊狼、蛾和蝴蝶等設計成平等和關聯(lián)的形式，參與這場永恒分化的運動。

3 云雀

這個“共振基礎設施”項目結合了本土鳥類、人類娛樂活動和大型農業(yè)綜合企業(yè)。隨著工業(yè)化農業(yè)的出現(xiàn)和大規(guī)模市場驅動的種植業(yè)體制變化，歐亞云雀（Alauda avensis）嚴重衰落。云雀一直受人喜愛，經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)在人們的音樂和詩歌中。其中有一部分原因是因為它們很容易在野外被觀察到，盡管它們看起來如此的遙遠、脆弱和不可知。

雄性云雀的求偶行為令人驚訝和欣喜：它們在空中迅速上升到一個很高的高度之后，再緩慢地以螺旋狀下降，伴隨著一連串動聽的充滿歡樂和希望的鳴叫，結束于一個自由落體運動至地面，最后優(yōu)雅地站在那里。整個舞蹈就是一種不穩(wěn)定和不確定的表演。

1881年，英國詩人喬治 梅瑞狄斯（George Meredith）在《云雀高飛》中寫道：

他飛起然后轉身，

發(fā)出了銀鏈般的鳴聲

沒有停歇，

似吱喳聲、口哨聲、低吟聲、顫抖聲，

他們相互盤旋、蔓延，

似水在潮汐中蕩漾

激起漣漪

形成旋渦;

似一連串匆忙的音符在奔流

他們的艦隊稀少但從來不只一支……

雄性云雀可以飛到距離地面50～100m的高空，在交配季節(jié)鳴叫可達20min，它盤旋的翅膀會為了滿足雌性云雀的喜好而變得更寬大，而且它還可以在長時間的休眠狀態(tài)下鳴叫。身長16cm的云雀完全掌控了這種不平衡的狀態(tài)。它通過身體的內部和外部系統(tǒng)實現(xiàn)了這種穩(wěn)定的“盤旋”而下的飄移運動，這些系統(tǒng)可以促使它們的身體在某些不穩(wěn)定和變換的時刻保持平衡。喬治 梅瑞狄斯的詩歌充分強調了云雀的這種能力，與此同時，它們還能自發(fā)地鳴唱出非常復雜的、持續(xù)不斷的美妙旋律[12]。

可是，現(xiàn)在云雀的數(shù)量只有30年前的10%。它們的棲息地已被大豆、玉米等單一作物所取代，從而降低了地形結構的多樣性，干擾了鳥類的地域性需求。野外生態(tài)研究表明，在商業(yè)種植的田野中，劃分出足夠多的大型區(qū)域可以增加云雀筑巢和覓食的機會，進而促進它們的繁衍。因此，英國的農民創(chuàng)造和保護生物多樣性可以獲得收益，以此來增加云雀的棲息地。英國農業(yè)研究機構SAFFIE①表明：在農作物播種期間適合建造云雀巢穴，當拖拉機越過地面時，關閉播種機（或提升播種機）5～10m的伸展量以暫時阻止播種。在同一片田野的幾塊區(qū)域重復建造這樣的云雀地塊，每英畝約2個，這些“種子平臺”能夠促使云雀獲得多種覓食機會。這是一個由財團牽頭、農業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)聯(lián)合會和塞恩斯伯里超市有限公司資助的項目。

3 郊狼視角：人類與郊狼共存Coyote perspective： humans and coyotes inhabit the same space

我們的研究團隊總部位于圣路易斯的華盛頓大學，在美國中西部的密蘇里州探索這項技術。密蘇里云雀，也被稱為斯普拉格云雀（Anthus spragueii），是一種草原鳥類，瀕臨滅絕。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)這些云雀地塊可以開發(fā)成一個物理空間網(wǎng)絡，通過這一網(wǎng)絡，人們可以追蹤鳥類的鳴叫和飛行軌跡。因此，我們設計了一條農業(yè)開放系統(tǒng)的路徑和多個野餐區(qū)，鼓勵其他地面筑巢的鳥類如野雞、鷓鴣等進行城鄉(xiāng)交叉，并使它們自行擴張（圖4）。這個項目場地距離果園農場（Orchard Farm）約2英里（約3.2km），是位于密蘇里河和密西西比河之間的大片農田里的一個小鎮(zhèn)。農田被排水溝渠、設備通道和地產(chǎn)邊界所分割。我們利用現(xiàn)有的軌跡開發(fā)出一個通道系統(tǒng)。4個野餐區(qū)——我們稱之為“云雀發(fā)現(xiàn)者區(qū)域”——沿著通道建立，參觀者可以通過密蘇里云雀和其他地面筑巢的鳥類觀察云雀地塊的使用情況（圖5）。云雀地塊（12m×3m）分布于2英畝（約0.81hm2）范圍內，橫跨了不同種植者所擁有的8塊玉米田。每個野餐區(qū)都是根據(jù)密蘇里云雀的驚飛距離（也稱“逃逸距離”）精準定位的。盡管每個“云雀發(fā)現(xiàn)者區(qū)域”的設計不同，但都是基于對人類和非人類物種的最大化保護。第一個野餐區(qū)提供鳥食平臺，第二個野餐區(qū)涉及考古挖掘的幾何和層次（圖6），第三個野餐區(qū)將火坑和一個由鋼網(wǎng)組成的頂棚合并在一起，用以收集樹葉并提供棲息地，而第四個野餐區(qū)則呼應了奧薩格人禮儀（Osage ritual）的保護圈，奧薩格人是密蘇里平原的土著居民。

正如20世紀早期的英國鄉(xiāng)村主義者所認為的，一整個區(qū)域都是一件藝術品[13]，人類和非人類物種的相互滲透有可能在廣闊的農田中實現(xiàn)，可將商業(yè)地域與斑塊和廊道的開放系統(tǒng)聯(lián)結起來。如果按照區(qū)域和地區(qū)的規(guī)模實施，該項目可以形成一個移動的、漂流的飼養(yǎng)和繁殖網(wǎng)絡，觀察和感受可能失去的機會。云雀項目堅決主張將城市和鄉(xiāng)村公共空間作為建設領域。

4 蜥蜴

4 云雀通道平面圖：通道被設置于經(jīng)過農田和位于重要節(jié)點的野餐區(qū)Skylark pathway plan： pathways are inscribed through croplands, and picnic zones located at strategic points

“蜥蜴花園”專門為連接位于新西蘭的奧克蘭本地的爬行動物和人類而設計，這個花園突出了奧克蘭地區(qū)獨特的火山景觀，并重點關注當?shù)仳狎娣N群的生態(tài)環(huán)境，其棲息地就是這座城市所在的火山地帶。該項目試圖提醒人們關注奧克蘭人雷達下的生物和地質關系網(wǎng)絡，并提供他們每天與之互動的景觀特質。與此同時，讓生活在其中的人們注意到蜥蜴和壁虎的神秘生活，該項目有助于對蜥蜴的科學認知。這是一個為爬行動物學學生提供的戶外實驗室，一個為市民提供新興科學實踐的場所，一個關于定居者和原住民之間沖突歷史的評論。蜥蜴花園將蜥蜴物種的科學數(shù)據(jù)與特定的社會文化數(shù)據(jù)結合起來以生成景觀形式。

一旦確定了特定蜥蜴物種的棲息地和微生境，就有可能通過增加特殊功能如食物來源和棲息機會來加強對現(xiàn)有棲息地結構的利用。微生境的數(shù)量越多，可容納的蜥蜴種類就越多。奧克蘭蜥蜴有相同的需求：原木、巖石露頭、落葉層。

溫度是爬行動物生態(tài)學中最重要的單因子之一，許多物種的大部分日?；顒又铝τ谂c熱環(huán)境相適應[14]。然而，在任何自然環(huán)境中，都存在極大的熱量多樣性。一只蜥蜴會從某些來源獲取熱量并輸出，這些獲取和輸出會隨著一天中時間的變化而改變。與外部環(huán)境的熱交換至關重要，產(chǎn)生熱交換有以下幾種方式：吸收輻射能、輻射損失、傳導、對流、蒸發(fā)冷卻。

早晨，蜥蜴的體溫很低，它們從窩里出來，在樹枝、樹干和其他類似的結構上曬太陽。這時，它們通過吸收太陽輻射能來提高體溫。它們只用腳與樹枝接觸以減少熱量損失從而達到能量的最大化。有時它們會用3條腿趴著。當基底變暖的時候，蜥蜴就會棲息在堅實的物體上，比如本身能吸收太陽能的巖石。在這樣的巖石上，蜥蜴會與它完全接觸，獲取太陽的熱量和巖石傳導的熱量。因此，蜥蜴花園的設計依賴于最大限度的棲息地設計：1）表面傾斜（在新西蘭朝北的地表會增加環(huán)境熱量）；2）巖石裂縫（用于保護和冬眠）；3）基底質地（提供食物來源和保護）；4）棲息高度（用于熱吸收和保護）；5）頂部冠層的直徑和密度（將太陽能對棲息地的滲透率最大化）。

位置很重要。新西蘭奧圖陶瓦（Otuataua）石場歷史保護區(qū)是唯一一個國家所有的毛利石場地（圖7）。它由2個火山錐噴發(fā)形成，其中一個火山錐已被廣泛開采，而另一個相對完整。毛利人和歐洲人會使用大量的噴發(fā)火山石來營造和保護花園。墻上的遺跡清晰地顯示了毛利人早期的園藝活動直至后來的果樹栽培和農業(yè)耕種。毛利人的花園墻體排列整齊，主要呈V字形構造，這樣可以最大限度地使紅薯曬到陽光，墻體被歐洲農業(yè)實踐特有的四邊形圍墻所覆蓋。這一系列獨特的陣列結構清晰地記錄了這部分城市的定居歷史。

我們已經(jīng)觀察到許多不同種類的蜥蜴，它們被認為可能棲息于石場。這些種類是現(xiàn)在瀕臨滅絕的莫可蜥蜴（Oligosome moco），銅蜥蜴（Cyclodenia aena），華麗蜥蜴 （Cycodenia arnate）和彩虹蜥蜴（Lampropholis delicata）。奧圖陶瓦蜥蜴花園的設計實現(xiàn)了這些物種的生態(tài)需求——它們對食物、活動空間和熱量的需求。

蜥蜴花園坐落于石場保護區(qū)附近，但不在里面。在這里，海岸步道轉變成90°而朝向石場保護區(qū)和前灘恢復區(qū)之間的邊界。這條步道是蒂阿拉魯阿（長步道）的一部分，貫穿整個新西蘭。在這一點，步道經(jīng)過2個大型的土石堆，從石場和奧克蘭的馬努庫港2個方向欣賞，景觀都很優(yōu)美。該設計應用了一系列的干巖石形式和一個向陽的土丘，形成了熱量面板，為熱量吸收、傳導和對流提供了一個理想的局部環(huán)境。干巖石結構（源自毛利墻的V形排列）為蜥蜴?zhèn)儠裉柡妥晕冶Ｗo提供了垂直的棲息地和橫向的縫隙。早晨，它們在樹枝和樹干上棲息，樹葉和地上的枯落物為昆蟲提供保護和食物，因此種植進一步增加了這里的生境結構。列植的亞麻（Phormium tenax）成為花園的邊界，為蜥蜴提供所需要的微氣候條件。除了提供生境以外，花園的設計還擴展了這個保護區(qū)中具有歷史意義的巖石花園結構，創(chuàng)造了一個新的地帶，使早期園藝技術模式得到加強和集中。設計延續(xù)了石場的土坑和土丘地形，巖石結構呈現(xiàn)出幾何形，檉柳為這個果園增加了異域風情（圖8）。

該花園為蜥蜴研究提供了一個及時的實驗室。這些爬行動物是城市的指示物種，可以體現(xiàn)我們所在城市的生物多樣性。但是，由于新西蘭北部的蜥蜴種群分布范圍減少，導致當?shù)嘏佬袆游飳W知識體系發(fā)展緩慢。目前，奧克蘭地區(qū)為12種蜥蜴提供了棲息地，但在城市化之前，這兒有18種。長期的城市化發(fā)展和捕食者數(shù)量的增加也造成了蜥蜴種類的減少。因此，奧克蘭的蜥蜴種群處在一個關鍵階段。該雷達項目展示了如何在城市環(huán)境中設計新的動物棲息地，以提高瀕危物種的生存機會。與此同時，它也提供一種新型的開放空間，一種融合人類公共生活和蜥蜴神秘生活的共振基礎設施。

5 海潮蟲

陸地和海洋之間的潮間帶似乎是一個缺乏劃定的梯度閾值：幾乎是沒有差異化的過渡。然而，潮灘有2個非常重要的軸線。雖然我們在視覺上沒有意識到，但它們的交互作用對潮灘來說至關重要。許多世紀以來，位于新西蘭的奧克蘭西部海岸的馬努卡港一直是毛利人居住的地方。他們的生態(tài)認識論是基于潮汐和月亮之間的交互作用，在X軸和Y軸之間，但它們本身是看不見的。

馬努卡港的一個裝置調查了這種交互作用。它運用了風景園林常用的橫斷面、識別、命名和繪圖等分析方法。從陸地到港口水道的泥灘上有一條線。沿著這條線在等距的間隔處將一個個樁插入到泥灘中。繪制的圖就是在每個樁的位置觀察到的生物種類，而這幅圖就被釘在樁上。我們可以看到的生物有：雙神經(jīng)綱、雙殼綱、甲殼綱、腹足綱、蜻蛉目、海潮蟲（圖9、10）。

海潮蟲（Scyphax ornatus）是一種陸生的等足類動物，在實驗室恒定的條件下，它表現(xiàn)出晝夜節(jié)律和半月形的活動節(jié)律，這種節(jié)律使得海潮蟲能夠預測夜間的覓食機會[15]。在科學領域的知識內，這些生物幾乎完全看不見?？茖W越是試圖描述和解釋它們，它們就變得越隱晦。對毛利人來說，收獲和飲食是一種解釋方法。吃活的物體就意味著把它帶進光明。

波利尼西亞的捕魚日歷反映了與潮間動物相關的月亮周期，它們的節(jié)律和特征與人類不同。月亮周期是在黑暗與光明之間的一個縱向區(qū)域，這個區(qū)域既是陸地也是海洋，在那里，海水掠過地表，有生命的物體找到了陽光地帶。這片柔軟的海岸、潮間帶、淺灘將陽光轉化為海草、蛤蜊、螃蟹、小魚苗、雙殼類、腹足類、甲殼類和棘皮類動物。這是一個食物的引力場。月亮周期賦予這個閾值范圍內的潮間帶動物、陸生動物和空中動物生命。在這兒，波利尼西亞人也充分利用這些覓食機會。

月亮節(jié)律和穿過海岸的潮汐都是在毛利歷法中預測的，在歷法中，知識論和生態(tài)學融合在一起形成了日歷，一個用于調節(jié)聚集食物的月球系統(tǒng)。毛利人將日歷中所有的天體系統(tǒng)——太陽和恒星周期以及月球周期都包括進去，但這是28～30d的日歷周期，月球與曼努考港泥灘上的食物密切相關，因為月球控制潮汐。在捕魚時，了解捕魚和月亮周期之間關系的重點是月亮的盈虧、一天中的時間變化、水的狀況、魚的種類以及鄰居的捕魚量。月亮支配一切，但太陽和星星卻推動了所有生物沿著自己的進化軌跡發(fā)展。在曼努考港的泥灘上，我們在海床上會發(fā)現(xiàn)底棲生物和浮游生物，它們在泥和空氣之間2英寸（約0.05m）的薄層中游泳。當昴星宿群低至東北部天空的地平線上時，正值半月凸月，鰻魚和魚類都很豐富但很小，而這是豐收貝類的一天。對毛利人來說，和海潮蟲一樣，月亮和食物相關。

天空和陸地、海洋一樣，都是一種文化資源。

5 野餐區(qū)平面圖：為觀察云雀行為而設計的4個野餐區(qū)Picnic zone plans： four picnic zones are designed for viewing of skylark behavior

6 第二個野餐區(qū)平面圖：第二個野餐區(qū)為人類使用提供各種級別Picnic zone 2 plan： picnic zone 2 has a variety of levels for human occupation

6 結論

本文簡要闡述的針對非人類物種城市化的調查主要集中在那些缺乏魅力或不明顯的生物上，但它們卻與人類生活在一起，并共享著景觀的很多層面。這個項目的目的，正如我所說的，是為了吸引人們注意那些神秘而又常?？床坏降纳锶后w，推此及彼，我們可以在全球公共領域中不斷創(chuàng)造包融而非排斥。利用納托 湯普森對共振基礎設施的概念，我探索了如何將彼埃爾 貝朗格對景觀基礎設施的解釋延伸到人類和非人類物種之間的各種相遇上。我之前已經(jīng)分別討論了這4個項目。這次會議的召開給了我一個機會把他們聯(lián)系在一起，慶祝人類與非人類物種相互作用的這種不平衡。正如我在其他場合所說的那樣，不平衡就是野生狀態(tài)。野生狀態(tài)就是在極度開放的條件下生存，伴隨著不穩(wěn)定、不確定的持續(xù)干擾。然而，野生狀態(tài)并不是人類所能達到的：它是不可知的。換句話說，如果某件事是可知的，那它就不是野生的[16]。當我們沒有了解野生環(huán)境的時候，我們又如何促使我們的世界達到野生狀態(tài)？

1 An Infrastructure of Resonance

In his important book Landscape as Infrastructure[1]Pierre Belanger argues that 20th century infrastructure, organized by urban planners and designed by engineers, is an urbanistically degrading and environmentally destructive solution to the problems of connectivity, mobility, and service provision. Not only has it torn up perfectly good places where people live but it has suppressed and marginalized biophysical systems.

Belanger propounds the formulation of landscape infrastructure as a contemporary field of practice that addresses the flows of urban economies and the dynamics of planetary ecologies.

And he would seem to be right about this. Yet, in the light of what is now called the nonhuman turn[2]I think we can push further the potential of infrastructure.The nonhuman turn insists that humans have always coevolved and collaborated with the other creatures of the earth (from microbes to mammals). Writers from Donna Haraway[3]through Bruno Latour[4]to Timothy Morton[5]have questioned the ontological separation of beings within a vertical hierarchy that puts humans at the top. In my own work I have argued that the collective of humans and nonhumans lives together in a constructed world, and that the primary site of their encounter with each other may well be public space - if “public” is taken to include nonhuman species[6]. Amongst all the work that is going in to saving the planet for human occupation it is necessary, these writers insist, to consider whether the planet actually exists for us. How are we human in a nonhuman world? How does a consideration of a nonhuman perspective affect the way we build and manage planetary systems?Particularly, for the subject of this essay, urban systems.

One way to incorporate these questions into urban thinking through landscape architecture is to extend Belanger’s concept of infrastructure. To be sure,physical infrastructure has an important job to do. But there are other networks and systems that are just as important - in fact, that help us envisage new types of infrastructure. Networks of social organizations, for instance, of shared meanings,non-material labor and - critically - social and political affect. These systems are distinct from physical infrastructure and yet connected to it. Together they enable us to include the pre-cognitive emotional and passionate dimension of life that many theorists say really drives politics and economics. Social theorist Chantal Mouffe, for instance, grounds her analysis of political agonism in a reading of social life in which “the passions” are the drivers of political decision-making[7].

How humans are exposed to, work and play with, and build their own subjectivities through meaningful connection to nonhumans can be part of this more ephemeral infrastructure, a condition that writer and curator Nato Thompson calls an infrastructure of resonance[8]. This is the subject of my essay.

Over the past ten years I have developed a small side-project called Under the Radar. It consists of a series of design investigations that explore affective encounters between humans and nonhumans from various perspectives. This essay briefly discusses four of these in an attempt to tease out what I mean when I refer to landscape architecture as an art of encounter[6]. In these projects public space becomes a designed realm in which the collective of humans and nonhumans is made visible and intentional,where the various parties are mixed and all their freedoms enhanced.

7 蜥蜴花園的位置圖：奧圖陶瓦石場位于新西蘭奧克蘭的曼努考港的邊界處Lizard garden location plan： Otuataua Stonefields are on the edge of the Manukau Harbor in Auckland, Nz

2 Coyotes

This project explores the boundaries between the human and the nonhuman in Auburn, a small town in Alabama, USA. The Auburn urban coyote population numbers approximately 600[9]. The Auburn Wildlife Services Office and the Department of Conservation regularly trap coyotes when complaints get too numerous to ignore. The trapped coyotes are killed with pentobarbital, rather than relocated and released. As a Wildlife Officer said at a public meeting, “As soon as a bunch of coyotes are moved out, new ones will come in. They will always be here.Auburn is an open green space city - coyotes love it”[10].

While the coyotes of Auburn, AL are classified as urban, ex-urban and rural populations, this human taxonomy has little to do with their lives and movements.Coyotes (Canislatrans) are swift, determined vectors whose evolutionary trajectory has taken them across a species boundary into a condition of continuous encounter with humans. The primary realm of this encounter is public open space,be it urban stream corridor, woods on the fringe of a park, or an urban cemetery. Camilla Fox of the Animal Protection Institute in Sacramento notes that, while most people are unaware that there are coyotes living in their midst, increasing human-coyote interaction is an urgent issue facing urban administrators and wildlife managers alike. In the Chicago metropolitan area most large green spaces are occupied by coyote packs of up to twelve individuals[11].

In many states, such as Alabama, the coyote is classified as a non-game “predator” or “furbearer species” and may be killed year round in unlimited numbers. In Alabama there is no closed trapping season and no bag limit. The question facing landscape architects is, how do we make a world in which coyotes and humans may co-exist?

Our research team at Auburn University mapped the coyote population’s movements and identified three public areas where we could design interventions that put humans and coyotes together in an awkward and unconventional way (Fig. 1). In the example discussed here, the site is a detention pond located between a woodland coyote corridor and the building that houses Auburn City’s Water and Sewer Services. In the design for this site, the terrain adjacent to the Water and Sewer Services detention pond, and the pond itself, are reorganized according to a modernist garden typology that can be read by human visitors as a designed realm, with purpose and amenity. The format of the rectangle creates straight lines, regular shafts of space and severe, high retaining walls. The pond is snapped into a large rectangle of water. Into this Euclidian space is introduced a planting regime designed specifically to provide food for the animals and insects that coyotes prey upon,and that coyotes themselves are known to eat (Fig. 2).

The planting scheme, based on gut and scat analyses of coyotes, is crafted to supply fruit and nuts throughout the year, according to the seasonal development of the plants, starting in the spring at the northern end of the site and ending in the fall at the south (Fig. 3). The trees, native and exotic, are underplanted with winter-flowering grasses that also are eaten by coyotes and their prey, particularly in the leaner months. This public garden, which provides seating, sun and shade for employees in the nearby buildings, attracts rabbits, squirrels, insects, birds and other wildlife. These species in turn entice coyotes in their passage along the adjacent woodland corridor. As the garden - or as we call it, the critter orchard-grows unchecked, plant and animal species will exceed its initial formal and spatial stratifications in an evolving assemblage of interactive inhabitations.

This small project attempts to establish a terrain of encounter, a place where a collective of humans and nonhumans is articulated. To articulate the collective the designer must consider the assembly of species that inhabit it when he or she mixes these ‘parties’ while retaining and enhancing their freedoms. A landscape that abandons the division between nature and society includes all conditions necessary and sufficient for the ongoing self-organization of the assemblage. To do this it is necessary to explore the common worlds of the collective - nature cultures, as Latour calls them -not in the sense of a unified march into the future along a line of time, but by means of enabling the formation of intricate attachments and affordances between and among species and elements through affective contact and inter-affirmation. The landscape architect who works for and with the republic of human and nonhuman nature cultures envisages life as a contingent process of growth and change. She participates in this movement of perpetual differentiation through the invention of forms that bring tree, child, rock, sky, bee, coyote,moth and butterfly into equivalence and association.

3 Skylarks

This next “resonant infrastructure” combines native birds, human recreational activities and large-scale agribusiness. The Eurasian skylark (Alauda arvensis)went into deep decline with the advent of industrial agriculture and the changing production regimes that accompany large-scale, market-driven cropping. But skylarks have always been beloved members of the nonhuman community, featuring often in music and poems. This is partially because they lend themselves to easy field observation yet seem so distant, so vulnerable and so unknowable. But it it is the mating behavior of the male that astonishes and delights.

But it is the mating behavior of the male that astonishes and delights: following a rapid ascent to a great height in the sky, a slow spiraling descent occurs, accompanied by a thrilling, cascading song that fills the air with hope and joy, ending in a gravity-defying plummet to the ground where,gracefully, he alights. The whole dance exhibits a kind of disequlibrious submission to instability and uncertainty.

In 1881 the British poet George Meredith wrote The Lark Ascending, in which this condition is described as follows:

He rises and begins to round,

He drops the silver chain of sound

Of many links without a break,

In chirrup, whistle, slur and shake,

All intervolv’d and spreading wide,

Like water-dimples down a tide

Where ripple rippleovercurls

And eddy into eddy whirls;

A press of hurried notes that run

So fleet they scarce are more than one …

The male lark, high in the air, 50 to 100 meters from the ground, sings for up to 20 minutes in the mating season, hovering on wings that have broadened through adaptation to female skylarks’ preference for males that can sing in suspended animation for long periods of time.The 16 cm skylark occupies a far from equilibrium condition. It commits itself to a steady, “intervol’d”downward drift as energy courses through the many internal and external systems that push the small bird through moments of instability and transformation. Meredith’s poem highlights the lark’s capacity, as this occurs, to spontaneously emit melodic song structures of extraordinary complexity and continuous novelty[12].

8 蜥蜴花園設計圖：蜥蜴花園的設計從毛利人、定居者和蜥蜴的需求出發(fā)，展示了形式和空間條件的發(fā)展Lizard garden concept plan： plan of Lizard Garden showing development of formal and spatial conditions from material requirements of Maori, settler society, and lizards

However, current lark numbers are only 10%of what they were 30 years ago. Their habitat has been replaced by single-species cropping, such as soybeans and corn, which reduces the structural diversity of terrains and interferes with the territorial requirements of the birds. Field ecology research has suggested that setting aside sufficiently large and numerous areas of otherwise commerciallyfarmed fields can help increase nesting and foraging opportunities for skylarks and thereby improve breeding success. As a result farmers in England are now paid to create and maintain biodiversity for increasing the habitat of skylarks. A British agrarian research organization, the SAFFIE①has shown that suitable nesting sites can be made during the sowing of commercial crops by turning the seeding machine off (or lifting the seed drill) for a 5 to 10 meter stretch as the tractor goes over the ground, to briefly stop the seeds from being sown. Repeated in several areas in the same field to make about two skylark plots per acre, these “seed tables” enable breeding skylarks access to multiple foraging opportunities.This is a consortium-led project funded by, amongst others, the Agricultural Industries Confederation and Sainsbury Supermarkets Ltd.

Our research team, based in Washington University in St Louis,explored this technique in Missouri, in the Midwest of the United States. The Missouri Skylark, also known as Sprague’s pipit(Anthus spragueii) a grassland prairie bird, is also endangered. We discovered that skylark plots can open up a network of physical spaces through which birdsong and flight can be traced by humans for their aesthetic and affective qualities. So we designed an agrarian open system of pathways and picnic areas that encourage other ground-dwelling avian species such as pheasants and partridge in the hope of emblematizing an urban-rural crossover that could spread almost on its own (Fig. 4). The site for the project is about two miles from Orchard Farm,a small town located in vast croplands between the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. The cornfields are divided by drainage ditches, equipment access-ways,and cleared property boundaries. We developed a pathway system using these existing tracks. Four picnic areas - which we called “l(fā)arkfinder zones” are located along the tracks, where visitors can observe the use of skylark plots by Sprague’s pipit and other ground-nesting birds (Fig. 5). The skylark plots(12m×3m) are distributed two to the acre across 8 cornfields owned by different growers. Each picnic area is carefully located according to the flushing distance (also known as escape distance) of the Missouri skylark. The design of each larkfinder zone,although different, is based on maximizing human and nonhuman protection. The first picnic area provides bird-feeding tables; the second refers to the geometry and layers of an archeological dig (Fig. 6). The third zone incorporates fire pits and an overhead canopy of steel mesh that collects leaves and provides habitat,while the fourth echoes the protective circle of Osage ritual, the Osage being the indigenous inhabitants of the Missouri plains.

Just as the early 20th century English ruralists considered the whole of a region as a work of art[13],the interpenetration of human and nonhuman made possible by interventions that are good for both has the potential to operate across extensive territories of cropland, linking commercial fields with open systems of patches and corridors. If implemented on the scale of districts and regions the project could form a shifting, drifting network of feeding and breeding,observing and feeling opportunities which would otherwise be lost. The skylark project firmly claims urban/rural public space as a constructed realm.

4 Lizards

A “l(fā)izard garden”, designed specifically to connect native reptiles and humans in Auckland,New Zealand, highlights the unique volcanic landscapes of the Auckland region by focusing on the ecology of the native lizard populations whose habitat is the volcanic field on which the city is built. It seeks to draw attention to the web of biotic and geologic relationships that lies just under the radar of Aucklanders, and provides the special character of the landscape with which they interact with on a daily basis. At the same time as bringing the cryptic lives of skinks and geckos to the attention of the people who live among them, the project contributes to the scientific understanding of lizards. An outdoor laboratory for herpetology students, a location for the burgeoning practices of citizen science, a commentary on the layered,conflictual histories of settler and indigenous peoples, the lizard garden intersects scientific data about lizard species with place-specific sociocultural data to generate landscape form.

Once the habitat and microhabitats of particular lizard species have been defined, it is possible to enhance the use of existing habitat structures by adding special features, such as food sources and perching opportunities. The greater the number of microhabitats, the greater the number of lizard speciesthat can be accommodated.Auckland lizards share a requirement for similar structures: logs, rock outcrops, leaf litter.

Temperature is one of the most important single factors in the ecology of reptiles and a great portion of the daily activity of many species is devoted to corresponding with the thermal environment[14]. In any natural environment,however, there is tremendous thermal diversity. A lizard will gain heat from some sources and lose it to others, and these gains and losses change with the time of day. Heat exchange with the environment is critical. This occurs in the following ways: absorption of radiant energy, radiative loss,conduction, convection, evaporative cooling.

In the morning lizards have low body temperature, and come out of their lairs to bask on twigs, branches and other similar structures. At this period they increase their temperature by the absorption of radiant solar energy. Absorption is maximized by their bringing only their feet into contact with the twigs to minimize heat loss through conduction. Sometimes they will perch on three legs. Later in the day when the substrate is warmer, the lizards will tend to occupy solid perches such as rocks which have themselves absorbed solar energy. On such rocks lizards will lie in full contact with the perch, absorbing heat both from the sun and by conduction from the rock. The design of lizard gardens, then, relies on operations that maximize habitat configuration: 1) inclination of surfaces (in New Zealand north facing surfaces increase the thermal environment); 2) presence of rock crevices(for protection and hibernation); 3) substrate texture(provides food source and protection); 4) perch height(for thermal absorption and protection); 5) diameter and density of overhead canopy (maximise solar penetration to habitat)

Location is important. New Zealand’s Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve is the only remaining Maori stonefield site in public ownership (Fig. 7). It was formed by the eruption of two volcanic cones,one of which has been extensively mined, while the other is relatively intact. Large quantities of volcanic stone from the eruptions were used both by Maori and Europeans in the making and protecting of gardens. Wall remnants clearly show the patterns of occupation and gardening from early Maori horticultural practices to latter day orcharding and farming. Maori garden wall alignments, primarily constructed in chevron patterns to maximize kumara(sweet potato) exposure to the sun, have been overlaid by quadrangular walled enclosures specific to European farming practices. The result is a singular array of structures that visibly record the history of settlement of this part of the city.

9 海潮蟲觀測裝置照片：手繪圖的橫斷面追蹤了生活在泥灘兩英寸水族館中的生物群Photo of Scyphax installation： transect of hand drawn images traces biota that live in the two inch aquarium of the mudflat

A number of different species of skink have been observed at, or may be considered as likely to inhabit, the stonefields site. These are the now endangered moko skink (Oligosome moco),the copper skink (Cyclodenia aena), the ornate skink (Cycodenia arnate) and the rainbow skink(Lampropholis delicata). The Otuataua lizard garden has been designed to fulfill the ecological destinies of these species - what they eat, the space they control, and their thermal requirements.

10 甲殼綱鉛筆畫：每根樁都說明了在它插入泥濘海岸的地方發(fā)現(xiàn)的一種處于閾限的生命形式Pen + ink crustacean： each stick illustrates a liminal life form found at the place where the stick pierces the muddy shore

The lizard garden is sited close to the stonefields reserve but not actually in it, at a point where the coastal walkway turns ninety degrees and heads towards the boundary between the stonefields reserve and a foreshore restoration zone. This walkway is part of TeAraroa (The Long Pathway), a walking trail that runs the length of New Zealand.At this point the walkway passes by two large earthcovered stone mounds, and affords impressive views both of the stonefields and Auckland’s Manukau Harbor. The design proposes a series of dry rock forms and an earth mound oriented to the sun, creating heat panels that provide a localized climate ideal for thermal absorption, conduction and convection. The dry rock structures (derived from the chevron-shaped alignments of the Maori walls) provide vertical perches and lateral crevices for basking and protection. Planting adds further to the habitat structure with the provision of twigs and branches for perching in the morning, and leaf and twig litter on the ground plane for protection and foraging for insects. Lines of flax (Phormium tenax)bound the garden and help provide the microclimate conditions lizards require.As well as providing habitat the design of the garden extends the historic stone garden structures of the reserve to create a new terrain that intensifies and focuses the patterns of early gardening techniques. The pit and mound continue the topography of the stonefields, the stone structures reflect their geometries, and tamarix trees introduce the exoticism of the orchard (Fig. 8).

The resulting garden provides a timely laboratory for the study of lizards. These reptiles are urban indicator species, and can tell us much about the biodiversity of our cities. But the body of knowledge of northern New Zealand herpetology is evolving only slowly, due to the diminished locations and range of the endemic lizard population. The Auckland region currently provides habitat for twelve species of lizard. Prior to urbanization there were eighteen. The depredations of prolonged urban development and the corresponding growth of predator populations have taken their toll. The lizard population of Auckland is therefore in a critical phase.The Under the Radar project shows how new animal habitat can be designed in urban situations to enhance at-risk species chances of survival. At the same time it providesa new kind of open space, an infrastructure of resonance that combines the cryptic, or hidden,lives of lizards with the all-too-public lives of folks.

5 Scyphax

The intertidal zone between land and sea is a gradient threshold that seems to lack delineation: it is all barely differentiated transition. Yet the tidal flat has two very important axes. While we are not visually aware of them their interaction is critical to the zone.For many centuries the ManukauHarbour on the west coast of Auckland, New Zealand has been inhabited by Maori. Their ecological epistemology is based on the interaction between the tides and the moon, between the X and Y axes, themselves invisible, of life.

An installation at Manukau Harbor investigates this interaction. It uses the analytical landscape architectural conventions of the transect, of identifying, naming and drawing. A stringline is stretched along the mudflat from land to harbor channel. At regular intervals along the line a peg is inserted into the mud. A drawing is made of a different creature observed at the location of each peg. The drawing is punched on the peg. We see live objects: amphineura, bivalvia, crustacea, gastropeda,odonata, scyphax (Fig. 9, 10).

Scyphax ornatus is a terrestrial isopod that exhibits circadian and circa-semilunar activity rhythms when kept in constant conditions in the laboratory, suggesting that these rhythms enable Scyphax to predict nightly foraging opportunities[15].Within scientific domains of knowledge such creatures are almost entirely invisible. The more science tries to describe them and explain them,the darker they become. To Maori, harvesting and eating is a way of explanation. To eat a live object is to bring it into the light.

The Polynesian fishing calendar reflects the lunar cycle in relation to intertidal animals, species whose rhythms and distinctions are different from humans’. The lunar cycle suspends objects dark and bright between darkness and light in a longitudinal zone that is both land and sea, where seawater skims the surface of the land and live objects find a sunlit zone. This soft shore - littoral, intertidal,epipelagic - transforms sunlight into seagrass,into cockle, crab, hatchling, bivalve, gastropod,crustacean, and echinoderm. It’s a gravitational field of food. The moon’s cycle gives life to intertidal animals, and to the terrestrial and aerial animals that feed in this liminal zone. Here the Polynesian takes advantage of her own foraging opportunities.

The rhythms of the moon and the tides it pulls across the shore are predicted in the Maori calendrical system, where epistemology and ecology come together to form a maramataka, a lunar system for regulating the gathering of food. Maori involve all the heavenly systems in their maramataka, the solar and stellar cycles as well as the lunar cycle, but it is the 28——30 day cycle of marama, the moon, that is most relevant to food practices on the mudflats of Manukau Harbor, since the moon controls the tides.When fishing, significant aspects for understanding the relationship between the catch and the lunar cycle are the phase of the moon, the time of day, the condition of the water, the species of fish out there,and the weight of your neighbor’s catch. The moon dictates all, but the sun and the stars describe the background oscillations that pull all creatures along their evolutionary paths.

On the mudflats of the Manukau Harbor,benthic and epipelagic species are found on the seabed and swimming in the two-inch layer between the mud and the air. When the Matariki (the star constellation of the Pleiades) are low on the horizon in the north east of the sky, at the time of the half moon waxing gibbous, eel and fish are abundant, but small, and it is a productive day to collect shellfish. For the Maori, as for the Scyphax, the moon is about food.

The sky is a cultural resource, as much as the land or sea.

6 Conclusion

The investigations into nonhuman urbanism that I have discussed briefly in this essay focus specifically on creatures that are not charismatic or obvious, but with whom humans share many of the landscapes in which they live. The purpose of this side-project, as I have called it, is to draw attention to the cryptic and often invisible biota that, with a little fellow-feeling, we can include rather than exclude in the ongoing creation of the global public realm.Using Nato Thompson’s notion of resonant infrastructures I have explored how Pierre Belanger’s explication of landscape infrastructure can be extended to various forms of encounter between humans and nonhumans. I have previously discussed the four projects presented here separately. The conference at which this work was presented gave me an opportunity to bring them together as one piece, celebrating the disequilibrium that characterizes human interactions with nonhuman species. As I have said elsewhere, to be far from equilibrium is to be wild. To be wild is to exist in a condition of extreme openness - instability, uncertainty, and continual perturbation. And yet to be wild is not something that humans can achieve: it is unknowable. In other words,if something is knowable, it is not wild[16]. How do we enwild our world when we cannot know the wild?

Notes:

① Sustainable Arable Farmers for an Improved Environment Project (https：//www.gwct.org.uk/farming/research/saffie/.)

② This is a speech delivered by the author at the International Landscape Architecture Symposium in 2017.

③Fig. 1, 3 are provided by Rod Barnett and Qian Deng,Fig. 2-1, 2-2, 9, 10 are provided by Rod Barnett, Fig. 4～6 are provided by Rod Barnett and Nona Davitaia, Fig. 7, 8 are provided by Courtesy of Bradbury McKegg Landscape Architects.

注釋：

① 全稱為Sustainable Arable Farmers for an Improved Environment Project (https：//www.gwct.org.uk/farming/research/saffie/.)。

② 本文為作者在2017世界風景園林師高峰講壇上的發(fā)言稿。

③ 圖1、3由羅德 巴內特與錢鄧（音譯）（Rod Barnett and Qian Deng）提供，圖2-1、2-2、9、10由羅德 巴內特（Rod Barnett） 提供，圖 4～6由羅德·巴內特與諾娜 達維塔亞（Rod Barnett and Nona Davitaia）提供，圖7、8由布拉德伯里 麥克格（Bradbury McKegg）景觀設計師提供。