1.天下 /tiānxià/

Tianxia(All Under Heaven)

古多指天子統(tǒng)治范圍的全部土地及統(tǒng)治權。古人認為，大夫的統(tǒng)治范圍是“家”，諸侯的統(tǒng)治范圍是“國”，天子的統(tǒng)治范圍是“天下”。“天下”字面義是“普天之下”，實質(zhì)指天子統(tǒng)治或名義之下的“家國”統(tǒng)合體所覆蓋的全部疆域，并包括天下所有的人及國家的統(tǒng)治權。后演變指全民族或全世界。

This term referred mainly to all the land under the name of the Son of Heaven and the right to rule on such land. The ancient Chinese held that the rule of senior officials was over their enfeoffed land，and that of dukes and princes was over feudal states. The rule of the Son of Heaven was over all the land. Literally，tianxia(天下) means “all under heaven.” It actually refers to all the territory embracing the enfeoffed land and feudal states under the rule or in the name of the Son of Heaven，as well as all the subjects and the right to rule. The term has later evolved to refer to the whole nation or the whole world.

引例Citations：

◎溥天之下，莫非王土；率土之濱，莫非王臣。(《詩經(jīng)·小雅·北山》)

(普天之下，無一不是天子的土地；四海之內(nèi)，無一不是天子的臣民。)

All land under heaven falls within the domain of the Son of Heaven；all those on this land are his subjects. (TheBookofSongs)

◎寡助之至，親戚畔之；多助之至，天下順之。(《孟子·公孫丑下》)

(擁護的人特別少，連親戚都叛離他；擁護的人特別多，天下所有的人都歸順他。)

With little popular support，even his relatives will betray and desert him；but with massive popular support，everyone under heaven will pledge allegiance to him. (Mencius)

◎天下興忘，匹夫有責。(梁啟超《飲冰室文集》卷三十三“痛定罪言”三引)

(天下的興盛與衰亡，[關乎到每一個人，因此]人人都有責任。)

The rise and fall of a nation is the concern of every citizen. (Liang Qichao：CollectionsofIceDrinkingStudy)

2.天命/tiānmìnɡ

Mandate of Heaven

天的命令與賜予?！疤烀敝饕N不同含義：其一，指天對于人事的命令。命令的內(nèi)容最初集中于王權的更替，即上天授命有德者征討并取代失德之君，享有至高無上的權力和福祿。其二，指命運，具有不可抗拒之義，標志著人力的限度。其三，指天賦予人的稟性?！吨杏埂贩Q“天命之謂性”。宋儒發(fā)揮這一思想，以“天命之性”指稱人稟受于天的純善的本性。

The term means order and bestowment from Heaven.“Mandate of heaven”mainly contains three different meanings：The first is the order of heaven over human affairs. Such order first of all focuses on a change of the supreme ruler’s authority：Heaven empowers the virtuous to attack and replace a ruler who has lost his virtue，and thus enjoy the highest and unsurpassed power and benefits.Secondly，mandate of heaven means fate，which is irresistible and imposes limit on human power. Thirdly，the term indicates the natural disposition bestowed by heaven upon human being. According toTheDoctrineoftheMean，“Mandate of heaven endows one with his nature.” Song-dynasty Confucian scholars developed this idea，proposing that human nature was the “nature of mandate of heaven，” that is，the inherent pure and good nature one receives from heaven.

引例Citations：

◎天命靡常。(《詩經(jīng)·大雅·文王》)

(天所命令賜予的王權和福祿不是恒常不變的。)

The power and fortune bestowed upon one by heaven are not permanent. (TheBookofSongs)

◎莫之為而為者天也，莫之致而至者命也。(《孟子·萬章上》)

(沒有人能做到卻做到了，這是天意；沒有人求它來它卻來到了，這是命運。)

That which no man can do but is accomplished is the mandate of heaven. That which no man asks but comes is from fate. (Mencius)

3.天道/tiāndào

Way of Heaven

天地萬物的存在與變化所遵循的基本法則，與“人道”相對。古人對“天道”的理解并不相同：其一，認為“天道”尤其是與日月星辰運行有關的天象暗示或決定著人事的吉兇成敗。古代有專門的職官負責通過對天象的觀察來推知人事。其二，認為“天道”是人的道德與人倫秩序的根源或依據(jù)。人的言行以及人倫秩序應該效法于“天道”，或者通過體認、發(fā)揮“天”所賦予的心性來通達“天道”。其三，認為“天道”與人世的道德、秩序乃至人事禍福之間都沒有必然的關聯(lián)。

The way of heaven refers to the basic rule governing the existence and changes of all things between heaven and earth，as opposed to“the way of humans.”Ancient Chinese interpreted “the way of heaven” in different ways. First，some believed that “the way of heaven，” especially the celestial phenomena relating to the movements of the sun，the moon，and the stars，foretell or dictate the success or failure of human affairs. In ancient times，designated officials predicted human affairs through observing celestial phenomena. Second，some believed that “the way of heaven” was the source or the basis of man’s moral conduct and of orderly human relations. One should comply with “the way of heaven，” in both words and deeds，so should human relations；and people should recognize and develop the moral nature bestowed upon by heaven so as to gain access to “the way of heaven.” Third，still others thought that there were no particular correlations between “the way of heaven” on the one hand，and moral conduct in the human world，human relations，as well as misfortune and fortune in human affairs on the other.

引例 Citations：

◎是以立天之道曰陰與陽，立地之道曰柔與剛，立人之道曰仁與義。(《周易·說卦》)

(所以確立天的法則為陰與陽，確立地的法則為柔與剛，確立人世的法則為仁與義。)

The laws governing the ways of heaven are yin and yang，those governing the ways of earth are gentleness and firmness，and those governing the ways of human society are benevolence and righteousness. (TheBookofChanges)

◎誠者，天之道也；誠之者，人之道也。(《禮記·中庸》)

(“誠”，是天的法則；達到“誠”，是人的修養(yǎng)的路徑。)

Integrity is what the way of nature requires；acting with integrity is the way to achieve self-refinement. (TheBookofRites)

◎天道遠，人道邇。(《左傳·昭公十八年》)

(天之道遙遠，人事之道切近。)

The way of heaven is far away；the way of man is near. (Zuo’sCommentaryonTheSpringandAutumnAnnals)

4.天理/tiānlǐ

Natural Law

天地萬物與人類社會所遵循的普遍法則。宋明儒者認為，“天”的本質(zhì)意義就是“天理”，并將“天理”作為具有終極意義的最高范疇?！疤炖怼笔鞘挛锏谋倔w或本原，決定著人與事物的本性，是自然法則與人倫道德的依據(jù)。“天理”超越于有形的具體事物，但又包含在每一個具體事物之中。在人性之中，“天理”表現(xiàn)為人天生所稟受的至善之性，常與“人欲”相對。

The term means the universal law observed by all things in heaven and on earth as well as by human society. Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming dynasties held that the essence of heaven was natural law，and they regarded natural law as the realm of ultimate significance. Natural law is the essence or the sourceof things，deciding the inherent nature of humans and things. It is the law of nature and the foundation of moral conduct in the human society. Natural law transcends visible，concrete things，but it also exists in each concrete thing. Interms of human nature，natural law expresses itself in the innate good nature one is bestowed upon by heaven，as opposed to“human desire.”

引例 Citations：

◎萬物皆只是一個天理。(《二程遺書》卷二上)

(萬物都只是天理的具體呈現(xiàn)。)

All things are but manifestations of the natural law. (WritingsoftheChengBrothers)

◎性即天理，未有不善者也。(朱熹《孟子集注》)

(人性就是天理，沒有不是善的。)

Human nature reflects the natural law，which is necessarily benign. (Zhu Xi：MenciusVariorum)

5.文明 /wénmínɡ/

Wenming(Civilization)

指社會文治教化彰明昌盛的狀態(tài)。“文”指“人文”，指禮樂教化以及與此相關的有差等又有調(diào)和的社會秩序；“明”即光明、昌明、通達之義。中華民族崇文而不尚武，自古便將文治教化的彰明昌盛作為自己的最高理想和追求，并以此作為評判異國他域政治是否清明的最重要標準。

This term refers to a thriving，prosperous，and perceptibly refined society in which people behave in a cultured fashion.Wen(文) refers to the arts and humanities，including social norms，music education，moral cultivation，and a social order that is hierarchical yet harmonious.Ming(明) means bright，prosperous，and highly civilized. The Chinese nation has always preferredwentowu(武，force). This is the loftiest ideal pursued by the Chinese nation since ancient times. It was also the criterion by which to judge whether the governance of a nation was well conducted.

引例Citation：

◎文明之世，銷鋒鑄鏑。(焦贛《易林·節(jié)之頤》)

(文明時代，銷毀兵器，停止戰(zhàn)爭。)

In a civilized society weapons are destroyed and war ceases. (Jiao Gong：AnnotationsonTheBookofChanges)

6.意境/yìjìnɡ

Aesthetic Conception

指文藝作品所描繪的景象與所表現(xiàn)的思想情感高度融合而形成的審美境界?！熬场北局附纭⑦吔?，漢末魏晉時期佛教傳入中國，認為現(xiàn)實世界皆為空幻，唯有心靈感知才是真實的存在，“境”被認為是人的心靈感知所能達到的界域。作為文藝術語，“境”有多重含義。“意境”由唐代著名詩人王昌齡提出，側重指文藝作品中主觀感知到的物象與精神蘊涵相統(tǒng)一所達到的審美高度，其特點是“取意造境”“思與境偕”。相對于“意象”，“意境”更突出文藝作品的精神蘊涵與美感的高級形態(tài)，它拓展了作品情與景、虛與實、心與物等概念的應用，提升了文藝作品及審美活動的層次。后經(jīng)過歷代豐富發(fā)展，“意境”成為評價文藝作品水準的重要概念，是歷代經(jīng)典作品層累的結果，也是優(yōu)秀文藝作品必須具備的重要特征?！耙饩场边@一術語也是外來思想文化與中華本土思想融合的典范。

The term refers to a state where the scene described in a literary or artistic work reflects the sense and sensibility intended.Jing(境) originally meant perimeter or boundary. With the introduction of Buddhism into China during the late Han，Wei and Jin dynasties，the idea gained popularity that the physical world was but an illusion，and that only the mind was real in existence. Sojingcame to be seen as a realm that could be attained by having sensibilities of the mind. As a literary and artistic term，jinghas several meanings. The termyijing(意境) was originally put forward by renowned Tang poet Wang Changling. It describes an intense aesthetic experience in which one’s perception of an object reaches a realm of perfect union with the implication denoted by the object. Aesthetic appreciation in the mind is characterized by “projecting meaning into a scene”and “harmonizing one’s thought with a scene.” In contrast with the termyixiang(意象)，yijing(意境) fully reveals the implication and the heightened aesthetic sense that an artistic work is intended to deliver. The concept is extended to include other notions such as sentiment and scene，actual and implied meanings，or mind and object. It also raises literary and artistic works to a new realm of aesthetic appreciation. After evolving through several dynasties，this concept developed into an important criterion to judge the quality of a literary or artistic work，representing an accomplishment drawing on classical writings through ages. It has also become a hallmark for all outstanding literary and artistic works.The term also represents a perfect union between foreign thoughts and culture and those typically Chinese.

引例Citation：

◎詩有三境：一曰物境。欲為山水詩，則張泉石云峰之境，極麗絕秀者，神之于心，處身于境，視境于心，瑩然掌中，然后用思，了然物象，故得形似。二曰情境。娛樂愁怨，皆張于意而處于身，然后用思，深得其情。三曰意境。亦張之于意而思之于心，則得其真矣。(王昌齡《詩格》)

(詩歌有三種境：一是物境。想作山水詩，就要盡所能擴大你對泉石、高聳入云的山峰的觀察，將其中極秀麗的景色及神韻印之于心，置身其間，再于內(nèi)心審視所得到的物境，直至如同在手掌上觀察一樣真切，然后進行構思，對所要描繪的具體物象了然于心，所以能得形似。二是情境。歡樂、悲愁、哀怨等情緒，都要盡量擴大你對它們的認識，切身感受，然后構思，就能將這些情感深刻地表現(xiàn)出來。三是意境。也同樣需要擴大你對它的認識，在內(nèi)心反復思索，然后就能得到意境的本真。)

A poem accomplishes aesthetic conception in three ways. The first is through objects. If you want to write poems about landscape，you need to observe intensely springs and creeks，rocks and towering peaks，imprint their extraordinary beauty and charm on your memory，put yourself in the scene created in your mind，and view in your mind’s eye the image you obtain until you can see it as vividly as if it were right on your palm. By then，you can start to think about writing the poem. A deep appreciation of the scene and its objects is instrumental in achieving a true poetic image. The second is through sentiments. Sentiments such as happiness，pleasure，sorrow，and anger should be allowed to develop in your mind. You should experience them personally to fully grasp the nature of these emotions. This will enable you to express them in a profound way. The third is through an imagined scene. This requires you to reach aesthetic appreciation by reflecting it in your mind time and again. Then you can capture the genuine nature of an idea. (Wang Changling：RulesofPoetry)

◎作詩之妙，全在意境融徹，出音聲之外，乃得真味。(朱承爵《存余堂詩話》)

(作詩的妙處，全在于意境的渾融相通，超出聲音之上，才能品味詩歌的本真韻味。)

A beautifully composed poem is one in which the blending of image and concept is such that it transcends that of sound and music. Only then can one savor the real charm of poetry. (Zhu Chengjue：CommentsontheCollectionofPoemsfromCunyutangStudy)

◎詩之格調(diào)有盡，吾人之意境日出而不窮。(周炳曾《道援堂詩序》)

(詩的體制、聲律是有限的，我們這些詩人的意境卻每天有新創(chuàng)，無窮無盡。)

Poems have limited verse forms and rhythmic patterns，but we poets are capable of creating fresh ideas every day，all the time. (Zhou Bingzeng：Preface toCollectionofPoemsfromDaoyuantangStudy)

7.境界/jìnɡjiè

Jingjie(Visionary World)

“境界”本指疆域邊界、土地邊界，后來在佛經(jīng)翻譯中，“境界”一詞被用于精神領域，指人破除對于物質(zhì)世界的沉迷后所達到的精神層次或修為境域。作為文藝術語，主要指文藝作品中所表現(xiàn)出的審美層次和境域，是作者的創(chuàng)造力、理解力和審美能力在精神層面的綜合呈現(xiàn)。有境界的作品是作者真實人格的顯現(xiàn)，具備超越凡俗的意味，更能引發(fā)讀者的共鳴，激發(fā)讀者的想象，甚至提升讀者的感受?！耙饩场毙纬奢^早，而“境界”主要受中唐以后佛教思想的影響而形成。近代學者王國維《人間詞話》對境界的闡釋最多。王國維往往將“意境”與“境界”概念通用。他構建了融合西方美學與中國古典美學為一體的“境界論”。但一般說來，意境側重作者主觀寓意與作品形象的完滿融會，通過鑒賞使想象得到發(fā)揮，而境界則突出心靈感悟使藝術形象得到升華，強調(diào)心靈世界對于作品層次的提升。

Jingjie(境界) originally meant border or boundary. Later，it was used to translate the idea of a mental realm in Buddhist sutras，a state of spiritual cultivation achieved after having overcome bewilderment in the material world. As a literary and artistic term，jingjieis mainly used to indicate the aesthetic depth in a literary work so as to give full expression to the author’s creativity，comprehension，and aesthetic faculties. A work reaching a high level ofjingjiemanifests the author’s true personality，transcends the ordinary，strikes a responsive chord in the heart of the reader，stimulates the reader’s imagination，and thus enhances the reader’s appreciation of his work. The termyijing(意境aesthetic conception) came into being earlier thanjingjie，which was formed under the influence of Buddhism in the mid-Tang period. In hisPoeticRemarksintheHumanWorld，modern scholar Wang Guowei wrote extensively aboutjingjie. He often usedyijingin the same sense as he usedjingjieor the other way round. He created the theory ofjingjie，in which he blended classical Western and classical Chinese aesthetics. Generally speaking，yijingrefers to a perfect combination of the message the author conveys with the images he uses in his works，and it gives full rein to reader’s imagination. The concept ofjingjie，however，foregrounds the sublimation of artistic images through mental insight，and emphasizes the role of the mental world in elevating the work of art to a higher level.

引例Citations：

◎言氣質(zhì)，言神韻，不如言境界。有境界，本也；氣質(zhì)、神韻，末也。有境界而二者隨之矣。(王國維《〈人間詞話〉刪稿》)

(與其用氣質(zhì)、神韻做評價標準，不如用境界來評價。境界是根本，氣質(zhì)、神韻是末節(jié)。有了境界，氣質(zhì)、神韻必然也就隨之出現(xiàn)了。)

The visionary world achieved in literary works serves as a better criterion for making critical evaluation than one’s personal character or charm. The visionary world is primary，whereas one’s personal character and charm are secondary. Once the visionary world is reached，personal character and charm will naturally follow. (Wang Guowei：PoeticRemarksintheHumanWorld[ReducedVersion])

◎山水不出筆墨情景，情景者境界也。(布顏圖《畫學心法問答》)

(畫山水的要素無非就是用筆和墨描繪情與景，情與景融為一體就是境界。)

Painting landscapes is about depicting with brush and ink the artist’s affective response to a natural scene. When the artist’s sentiments interact intensely with the natural scene，a realm of what we call the visionary world is reached.(Buyantu：HowtoPaint)

8.知行合一/zhīxínɡ-héyī

Unity of Knowledge and Action

對“知”“行”關系的一種認識。王守仁基于心學“心外無理”的主張，提出了“知行合一”說。他認為，對人倫日用之道的體認與踐行不能割裂，二者是一體的兩面。心中有所“知”必然會付諸行動，“行”是“知”的自然運用。若不“行”，便不是真正的“知”。另一方面，“行”也必然會帶來深刻切實的認知。若沒有“知”，僅僅是不自覺的或迫不得已的行為，便不能實現(xiàn)端正之“行”。

This is one interpretation of the relationship between “knowledge” and “action.”Based on the concept in philosophy of the mind that “there are noli(理)，or principles，outside the mind，” Wang Shouren made the argument that “there is unity of knowledge and action.” He felt that it was impossible to separate an understanding of the principles underlying human relations in everyday life from the application of these principles，that these were two sides of the same thing. If there was “knowledge” in the mind，it would surely be put into practice，as “action” was the natural use of “knowledge.” If it was not applied，it could not be true “knowledge.” On the other hand，“action” would also bring about deeper knowledge. Without “knowledge，” mere unconscious or forced behavior would not constitute proper“action.”

引例 Citations：

◎外心以求理，此知行之所以二也；求理于吾心，此圣門知行合一之教。(《傳習錄》卷中)

(在心外尋求理，這是將知行分別為兩件事的原因；在心中尋求理，這是圣門“知行合一”的教法。)

Searching for principles outside the mind is the reason why people separate knowledge from action；searching for principles within one’s mind is how sages teach about the unity of knowledge and action. (RecordsofGreatLearning)

◎知之真切篤實處，即是行；行之明覺精察處，即是知。知行工夫本不可離，只為后世學者分作兩截用功，失卻知行本體，故有合一并進之說。(《傳習錄》卷中)

(認知達到真切篤實的境地，便是“行”；踐行達到明確的自覺和精微的省察，便是“知”。“知”與“行”的工夫原本不能割裂，只是因為后世的學者將二者作為兩件事分別去用功，背離了“知”“行”本來的狀態(tài)，因此有知行合一并進之說。)

When knowledge is genuine and substantive，it becomes action；when actions bring about self-awareness and keen perceptions，they become knowledge. “Knowledge” and “action” were indivisible to begin with，and it was only because scholars later treated them as two separate things，contrary to their original nature，that there was a theory of their being united and developing together. (RecordsofGreatLearning)