前言

1951年5月23日，《中央人民政府和西藏地方政府關于和平解放西藏辦法的協(xié)議》（簡稱《十七條協(xié)議》）的簽訂，宣告西藏和平解放。從此，西藏人民永遠擺脫了帝國主義的侵略和羈絆，與全國各族人民一道在祖國大家庭里走上了團結、進步、發(fā)展的光明大道。

以和平解放為起點，西藏各族人民在中國共產(chǎn)黨的堅強領導下團結奮進，貫徹執(zhí)行《十七條協(xié)議》，有力維護了國家主權、祖國統(tǒng)一和領土完整；進行民主改革，徹底廢除了政教合一的封建農奴制，百萬農奴翻身解放、當家作主，各族人民的根本利益得到保障；建立社會主義制度，實行民族區(qū)域自治，西藏社會制度實現(xiàn)了歷史性跨越；扎實推進改革開放和現(xiàn)代化建設，極大解放和發(fā)展了社會生產(chǎn)力，極大改善了西藏各族人民生產(chǎn)生活條件。進入新時代，在以習近平同志為核心的黨中央堅強領導下，在全國人民大力支持下，西藏脫貧攻堅全面勝利，社會大局更加穩(wěn)定、經(jīng)濟文化更加繁榮、生態(tài)環(huán)境更加良好、人民生活更加幸福，一個嶄新的社會主義新西藏呈現(xiàn)在世人面前。

值此西藏和平解放70周年之際，回顧歷史進程、展示偉大成就，全面立體真實展現(xiàn)社會主義新西藏，有助于以事實駁斥境外一些勢力散布的種種謊言，有助于國際社會正確認識西藏翻天覆地的歷史巨變。

一、和平解放前的西藏

西藏自古就是中國神圣領土不可分割的一部分，是中國藏族主要聚居區(qū)之一。近代以來，以英國為首的帝國主義勢力一手制造了所謂的“西藏獨立”問題，嚴重破壞了中國的主權和領土完整。

——西藏自古是中國不可分割的一部分

中國是一個歷史悠久的統(tǒng)一的多民族國家，中華民族是一個命運共同體。西藏是各民族共同開發(fā)的，西藏歷史是各民族共同書寫的，藏族和其他各民族在政治經(jīng)濟文化上的交流貫穿了西藏歷史發(fā)展始終，藏族就是在各民族交往交流交融中形成發(fā)展起來的。大量考古和學術研究表明，早在遠古時期，居住在西藏高原的藏族先民就與漢族和其他兄弟民族有著血緣、語言和文化上的密切聯(lián)系。公元7世紀在西藏建立的吐蕃地方政權，為中國西南邊疆開發(fā)作出了重要貢獻。

元朝（1271-1368年）中央政府實現(xiàn)了對西藏地方的有效管轄和治理。元朝設立總制院（后稱宣政院），直接管理西藏地方事務，在西藏清查戶口、設置驛站、征收賦稅、駐扎軍隊、任命官員，并將元朝刑法、歷法頒行西藏。明朝（1368-1644年）中央政府在西藏實施多封眾建，給西藏各地政教首領封以“法王”“王”“灌頂國師”等名號，設置烏思藏、朵甘兩個“衛(wèi)指揮使司”和“俄力思軍民元帥府”，分別管理衛(wèi)藏、昌都等地和阿里地區(qū)的軍政事務。清朝（1644-1911年）中央政府對西藏地方的管理十分完善，先后冊封藏傳佛教格魯派首領五世達賴和五世班禪，正式確立達賴喇嘛與班禪額爾德尼的封號和政治、宗教地位，歷世達賴、班禪均須中央政府冊封遂成定制。設駐藏大臣，代表中央先后監(jiān)督、共管西藏軍政事務，總計派遣駐藏大臣百余人。1751年，乾隆皇帝授命七世達賴喇嘛與駐藏大臣共同管理西藏地方政教事務。1793年，清朝政府在驅除廓爾喀入侵勢力之后整頓西藏地方秩序，頒布《欽定藏內善后章程二十九條》，完善中央政府治理西藏地方的多項制度，明確規(guī)定達賴等大活佛轉世須經(jīng)金瓶掣簽認定，并報中央政府批準。此后清代五位達賴喇嘛中，三位經(jīng)金瓶掣簽認定，其余兩位經(jīng)中央政府特批免于金瓶掣簽。

清朝滅亡后，中華民國繼續(xù)對西藏實施主權管轄。1912年，中華民國第一部憲法《中華民國臨時約法》明確規(guī)定中央對西藏的主權，宣布“西藏是中華民國領土的一部分”，提出“合漢、滿、蒙、回、藏諸族為一人，實行五族共和”。同年7月，民國政府設蒙藏事務局。1929年，南京國民政府設立蒙藏委員會，管理蒙藏事務。1940年，國民政府在拉薩設蒙藏委員會駐藏辦事處，作為中央政府在西藏地方的常設機構。民國時期官方和民間出版機構出版的世界地圖和中國地圖，均將西藏列為中國領土。雖然民國期間軍閥混戰(zhàn)，內亂頻仍，國家孱弱，但中央政府仍堅定地維護了國家在西藏的主權。十四世達賴、十世班禪繼續(xù)接受了中央政府的冊封。國際上沒有一個國家和政府承認過“西藏獨立”。

——所謂“西藏獨立”問題是近代帝國主義侵略中國的產(chǎn)物

自18世紀以來，西方一些勢力就通過“探險”“考察”等手段覬覦我西藏。19世紀末，帝國主義掀起瓜分中國的狂潮，英國侵略勢力趁機染指西藏。鴉片戰(zhàn)爭后，英國加緊從英屬印度侵略西藏，先后于1888年、1903年兩次武裝入侵，遭到當?shù)剀娒駡詻Q抵抗。在武裝侵略未能達到目的后，又轉而在西藏培植親帝分裂勢力，策劃、煽動“西藏獨立”。1907年，英俄秘密簽訂《西藏協(xié)定》，在中國政府不知情的情況下，第一次在國際文件中將中國對西藏地方的主權篡改為“宗主權”。1913年，英國策劃召開西姆拉會議，唆使西藏地方代表首次提出“西藏獨立”的無理要求，當即遭到中國政府代表嚴詞拒絕。這便是“西藏獨立”一詞的首次出籠。1914年7月，中國政府代表拒絕在《西姆拉條約》上簽字，并發(fā)表聲明概不承認任何此類條約或文件，同時將該立場照會英國政府，西姆拉會議遂以失敗告終。

1942年，西藏地方政府在英國代表支持下突然宣布成立“外交局”，公開進行“西藏獨立”活動，因遭到全國人民和國民政府的反對而不得不改變原議。1947年，英國幕后策劃邀請西藏派代表參加“泛亞洲會議”，在會場上懸掛的亞洲地圖和萬國旗中把西藏作為一個獨立國家來對待，經(jīng)中國代表團嚴正交涉，會議組織者不得不改正這種錯誤做法。中華人民共和國成立前后，帝國主義加快了與西藏親帝分裂勢力勾結的步伐，1949年7月8日，西藏地方政府以“防止共產(chǎn)黨混跡西藏”為借口，下令將國民政府駐藏辦事處人員及相關人員驅趕出西藏，制造了拉薩“七·八”事件。1949年11月，西藏地方政府決定派所謂的“親善使團”赴美國、英國、印度、尼泊爾等國，尋求對“西藏獨立”的政治支持和軍事援助，加緊分裂國家的活動。1949年，美國人勞爾·湯姆斯（Lowell Thomas）以哥倫比亞廣播公司“無線電評論員”名義在西藏圖謀“華盛頓給西藏以可能的援助”，并在美國報刊上宣稱“美國已準備承認西藏為獨立自由”的國家。1950年上半年，一批美國槍支彈藥經(jīng)由加爾各答進入西藏，用以對抗中國人民解放軍進藏。

歷史事實清楚地證明，所謂“西藏獨立”問題完全是帝國主義侵略中國的產(chǎn)物，驅逐帝國主義勢力出西藏是中國人民維護祖國統(tǒng)一的必然要求。

——解放西藏是各族人民的熱切期盼

1949年9月2日，中國共產(chǎn)黨授權新華社發(fā)表題為《決不容許外國侵略者吞并中國的領土——西藏》的社論，指出“西藏是中國的領土，絕不容許任何外國侵略；西藏人民是中國人民的一個不可分離的組成部分，絕不容許任何外國分割。這是中國人民、中國共產(chǎn)黨和中國人民解放軍的堅定不移的方針”。社論發(fā)表后，西藏各界紛紛響應和擁護，盼望解放軍早日進藏。就在新中國成立當天，十世班禪致電中央政府：“速發(fā)義師，解放西藏，驅逐帝國主義勢力。”12月2日，原西藏攝政五世熱振活佛的近侍益西楚臣到西寧，向人民解放軍控訴帝國主義破壞西藏內部團結的罪行，請求迅速解放西藏。當時在西藏頗有聲望的藏族學者喜饒嘉措也在西安發(fā)表談話，譴責帝國主義策劃拉薩當局進行所謂“獨立”的陰謀。1950年初，藏族農牧民、青年、婦女和民主人士代表百余人在剛剛解放的蘭州集會，要求解放西藏。

毛澤東主席和朱德總司令在復電十世班禪時指出：“西藏人民是愛祖國而反對外國侵略的，他們不滿意國民黨反動政府的政策，而愿意成為統(tǒng)一的富強的各民族平等合作的新中國大家庭的一分子。中央人民政府和中國人民解放軍必能滿足西藏人民的這個愿望?！痹谥醒肴嗣裾挠⒚鳑Q策和全國各族人民的共同企盼下，解放西藏的偉大事業(yè)正式開啟。(待續(xù))

Tibet Since 1951：Liberation,Developmentand Prosperity(Ⅰ)

Foreword

On May 23, 1951, the Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet (the 17-Article Agreement) was signed. The people of Tibet broke free from the fetters of invading imperialism for good, embarking on a bright road of unity, progress and development with all the other ethnic groups in China.

Following the peaceful liberation, all the ethnic peoples of Tibet, united under the strong leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC), have worked together in implementing the 17-Article Agreement, and stood firm in safeguarding national sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity. Together, they have:

? carried out democratic reform to abolish Tibet's feudal theocratic serfdom, liberating millions of serfs and ensuring the fundamental interests of all ethnic groups in Tibet;

? established the socialist system and implemented regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet, bringing historic changes to Tibetan society; and

? pressed ahead with reform, opening up, and modernization, significantly unleashing the productive potential and improving the lives and working conditions of the people in Tibet.

In the new era, under the strong leadership of the CPC Central Committee with Xi Jinping at the core and with the vigorous support of the whole country, Tibet has eradicated extreme poverty. Enjoying a stable social environment, economic and cultural prosperity, and a sound eco-environment, the people now lead better lives and live in contentment. A brand new socialist Tibet has taken shape.

On the occasion of the 70th anniversary of Tibet's peaceful liberation, we are publishing this white paper to review Tibet's history and achievements, and present a true and panoramic picture of the new socialist Tibet.This will help to counter the propaganda spread by a number of Western countries and their allies and provide the international community with a balanced account of the enormous transformation that has taken place in Tibet.

I. Tibet Before the Peaceful Liberation

Tibet has been an integral part of Chinese territory since ancient times, and one of the main Tibetaninhabited areas in China. In the aftermath of the Opium Wars in the middle of the 19th century, the UK-led imperialist powers began to cultivate the idea of “Tibet independence”, intentionally undermining China's sovereignty and territorial integrity.

-Tibet has been an inseparable part of China since ancient times.

China is a unified multiethnic country with a long history. The Chinese nation is a community of shared future. Tibet has developed through the combined efforts of all the ethnic groups in China, and these are the peoples who have created its history. The political,economic and cultural exchanges between Tibetans and other ethnic groups throughout history have had an important bearing on the development of the Tibetan people as an ethnic group. Abundant archeological and academic research shows that in times of remote antiquity, the ancestral people inhabiting the Tibetan Plateau had close ties with the Han and other ethnic groups in terms of blood, language, and culture. The Tubo Kingdom established in Tibet in the 7th century contributed significantly to the exploration of China's southwestern borders.

In the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), the central government exercised jurisdiction and governance over Tibet. It established the Supreme Control Commission of Buddhism (later renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs) to directly manage local affairs in the region, conducting censuses, setting up courier stations, collecting taxes, stationing troops and appointing officials. It also issued and enacted the Yuan criminal law and calendar in Tibet.

The central government of the Ming Dynasty(1368-1644) implemented a policy of multiple enfeoffment, conferring honorific titles such as“Prince”, “Prince of Dharma”, and “National Master in Tantrism” on political and religious leaders in various parts of Tibet. It established the U-Tsang and Do-kham regional military commissions and the Ngari Commanding Tribal Office to manage military and political affairs in U-Tsang, Qamdo and Ngari respectively.

During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the central government exercised sound governance over Tibet. It granted honorific titles to the leaders of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism - the 5th Dalai Lama and the 5th Panchen Lama - officially establishing the titles of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Erdeni and their political and religious status in Tibet. From then on, it became an established convention that the central government conferred the titles of Dalai Lama and Panchen Erdeni.The Qing government began to station Grand Ministers Resident in Tibet to supervise and jointly manage local military and political affairs on behalf of the central authorities; in total it appointed more than 100 such ministers. In 1751, Qing Emperor Qianlong authorized the 7th Dalai Lama to jointly manage local political and religious affairs with the Grand Minister Resident in Tibet. In 1793, after dispelling Gurkha invaders,the Qing government restored order in Tibet and promulgated the Imperially Approved Ordinance for Better Governance of Tibet (the 29-Article Ordinance),improving several of the systems by which the central government administered Tibet. The ordinance stipulated that the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and other grand Living Buddhas had to follow the procedure of “drawing lots from the golden urn”, and the selected candidate would be subject to approval by the central government of China. Observing the ordinance, three of the five Dalai Lamas in the Qing Dynasty were selected and approved in accordance with this procedure, and the other two were exempted from the procedure with special approval from the central government.

After the downfall of the Qing Dynasty, the Republic of China (ROC) continued to exercise sovereignty over Tibet. In 1912, the ROC issued its first constitution - the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, which reaffirmed the central government's sovereignty over Tibet. It clearly stipulated that “Tibet is a part of the territory of the ROC”,and stated that “the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui and Tibetan peoples are of one nation, and are to run the Republic together”. In July, the government set up the Bureau of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs. The Nanjing National Government set up the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs in 1929 to act in the same capacity. In 1940, the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs opened an office in Lhasa as the permanent organ representing the central government in Tibet. Under the ROC, Tibet was clearly identified as Chinese territory in world maps and maps of China issued by government and non-government publishers.The central government of the ROC safeguarded the nation's sovereignty over Tibet in spite of frequent civil wars among warlords and a weak state, and following the tradition by conferring the official titles on the 14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Lama. No country or government in the world has ever acknowledged the“independence of Tibet”.

- “Tibetan independence” was a product of imperialist aggression against China in modern times.

Western attempts on Tibet began in the 18th century, pioneered by “adventurers” and “explorers”who made trips to the region. At the end of the 19th century, imperialist powers engaged in a fervent spree of carving up China, and the British aggressors took the opportunity to invade Tibet. British troops invaded Tibet twice in 1888 and 1903 and met with stubborn resistance from the Tibetan army and civilians. Its invasion plans thwarted, Britain began to cultivate proimperialist separatists in Tibet, devising activities to separate Tibet from China and championing “Tibet independence”. In 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Convention Between Great Britain and Russia on Tibet,without the Chinese government's knowledge, changing China's sovereignty over Tibet into “suzerainty”in an international document for the first time. In 1913, the British government engineered the Simla Conference to instigate the Tibetan representative to raise the issue of “Tibetan independence”, which was immediately rejected by the representative of the Chinese government. This was the first time the concept had been made public. In July 1914, the representative of the Chinese government refused to sign the Simla Convention, and made a statement saying that the government of China refused to recognize any such agreement or document. The Chinese government also sent a note to the British government, reiterating its position. Thereupon, the conference collapsed.

In 1942, the local government of Tibet, with the support of the British representative, suddenly announced the establishment of a “foreign affairs bureau” and began to openly engage in “independence”activities. With opposition from the Chinese people and the national government, the local government of Tibet had no choice but to withdraw its decision.In 1947, Britain conspired behind the scenes to invite Tibetan representatives to attend the Asian Relations Conference, and even identified Tibet as an independent country on the map of Asia hung in the conference hall and in the array of national flags. The organizers were forced to rectify this after the Chinese delegation made a stern protest.

Around the time of the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, imperialists accelerated their collusion with pro-imperialist separatists in Tibet. On July 8, 1949, the local government of Tibet issued an order to expel officials of the Tibet Office of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs on the pretext of “prohibiting Communists from staying in Tibet”. In November 1949, the local government of Tibet decided to dispatch a “goodwill mission” to the United States, Britain, India,Nepal and a number of other countries, seeking political and military support for “independence” and making it obvious that it was intensifying separatist activities.In 1949, the American Lowell Thomas crossed Tibet in the guise of a “radio commentator” of the Columbia Broadcasting System to explore the “possibility of aid that Washington could give Tibet”. He wrote in a US newspaper: “The United States is ready to recognize Tibet as an independent and free country.” In the first half of 1950, American weaponry was shipped into Tibet through Calcutta in order to help resist the People's Liberation Army's entry into Tibet.

Historical facts clearly demonstrate that “Tibetan independence” was no more than a product of imperialist aggression against China. Driving imperialist forces out of Tibet was the precondition for the Chinese people to safeguard national unification.

- Liberating Tibet was the shared aspiration of all ethnic groups in Tibet.

On September 2, 1949, Xinhua News Agency,with authorization from the CPC, published an editorial under the headline, “Foreign Aggressors Are Resolutely Not Allowed to Annex China's Territory - Tibet”.The editorial pointed out, “Tibet is part of the Chinese territory; no foreign aggression is allowed. The Tibetan people are an inseparable part of the Chinese nation, and any attempt to divide them from China will be doomed.This is a consistent policy of the Chinese people, the CPC and the People's Liberation Army (PLA).”

All sectors of society of Tibet quickly responded and expressed support for the editorial and the hope that the PLA would enter Tibet as soon as possible.On October 1, 1949, the day the PRC was founded,the 10th Panchen Lama sent a telegram to the central government: “Please send troops to liberate Tibet and expel the imperialists as soon as possible.”

On December 2, Yeshe Tsultrim, an aide of the 5th Regent Reting Rinpoche, arrived in Xining, Qinghai Province, to lodge complaints with the PLA about the imperialists destroying the internal unity of Tibet, and urged the PLA to liberate Tibet as soon as possible.

Sherab Gyatso, a prominent Tibetan scholar,delivered a talk in Xi'an, denouncing an imperialist conspiracy through which Lhasa authorities would seek “independence”. In early 1950, over 100 Tibetan people, including farmers and herdsmen, young people,women and democratic representatives, assembled in Lanzhou in Gansu Province, which had been liberated not long before, and urged the PLA to liberate Tibet.

In their reply to the 10th Panchen Lama, Mao Zedong and Zhu De stated, “The Tibetan people love the motherland and stand against foreign aggression.They are discontent with the policies of the reactionary Kuomintang government, and want to be part of the big family of a unified New China, where all ethnic groups are equal and work together for prosperity. The Central People's Government and the Chinese PLA will certainly comply with this wish of the Tibetan people.”

With determined support from the Central People's Government, Tibet saw the hope of a peaceful liberation anticipated by the whole of China. (To be continued)