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近二十年來英語學(xué)術(shù)界有關(guān)中國海上絲綢之路史研究的新趨向*

2024-01-26 04:49安樂博馬光
海交史研究 2023年3期
關(guān)鍵詞:海盜東南亞海洋

[美]安樂博 馬光

提及絲綢之路,大部分人腦海中都會浮現(xiàn)出大漠駝隊行走在中歐陸上絲綢之路上的情景。然而,與陸上絲綢之路并駕齊驅(qū)的,還有另外一條同樣古老、同樣重要的海上絲綢之路。(1)本文初稿完成于2019年,后略有增訂,限于篇幅,本文主要以2000-2020年間英語相關(guān)作品為討論對象。英語學(xué)術(shù)界通常主要關(guān)注陸上海上絲綢之路。例如:James Millward (米華健),The Silk Road:A Very Short Introduction,New York:Oxford University Press,2013;Valerie Hansen (韓森),The Silk Road:A New History,New York:Oxford University Press,2015;Peter Frankopan (弗蘭科潘),The Silk Roads:A New History of the World,New York:Oxford University Press,2016。2010年,劉欣如所著The Silk Road in World History (New York:Oxford University Press,2010)是個例外,該書對海上絲綢之路有所涉及。將其稱之為海上絲綢之路,或許略為不當(dāng),因為事實上,在古代中國海洋貿(mào)易中最重要的商品是瓷器,而非絲綢。盡管如此,這一術(shù)語還是被廣為接受,尤其是2013年10月習(xí)近平主席提出“21世紀(jì)海上絲綢之路”的倡議構(gòu)想后,變得更為流行。習(xí)主席展望了這條從中國到東南亞,再到印度甚至更遠(yuǎn)處的新海洋經(jīng)濟(jì)帶的發(fā)展趨勢。按照這一倡議構(gòu)想的設(shè)計,中國將與外界進(jìn)行貿(mào)易、金融、外交、科技和文化等多方面的交流與合作。(2)習(xí)近平講話的英譯,可參考:“Speech by Chinese President Xi Jinping to Indonesian Parliament”,online at www.asean-china-center.org/english/2013-10/03/c_133062675.htm (accessed 3 March 2017).這一倡議,并非憑空想象,而是有著深刻的歷史淵源。

亞洲海洋史研究,或被中國學(xué)者稱為海上絲綢之路的研究,如今已成為歷史學(xué)家最為關(guān)注的熱門議題之一。(3)有關(guān)中國海洋史的早期研究論著,可以參考:Robert Gardella(加德拉),“The Maritime History of Late Imperial China:Observations on Current Concerns and Recent Research”,Late Imperial China Vol.6,No.2 (1985),pp.48-66;Chang Pin-tsun(張彬村),“Maritime China in Historical Perspective”,International Journal of Maritime History Vol.4,No.2 (1992),pp.239-55;Lai Chi-kong (黎志剛),“The Historiography of Maritime China since c.1975”,in Frank Broeze ed.,Maritime History at the Crossroads:A Critical Review of Recent Historiography,Liverpool:Liverpool University Press,1995,pp.53-80;近期論著,可參考:Harriet Zurndorfer (宋漢理),“Oceans of History,Seas of Change:Recent Revisionist Writing in Western Languages about China and East Asian Maritime History during the Period 1500-1630”,International Journal of Asian Studies Vol.13,No.1 (2016),pp.61-94.有關(guān)東南亞海洋史的論著,可參考:Geoff Wade (韋杰夫),“The Pre-Modern East Asian Maritime Realm:An Overview of European-Language Studies”,National University of Singapore,Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series No.16,2003.事實上,不單是歷史學(xué)家,考古學(xué)家、人類學(xué)家、地理學(xué)家、社會學(xué)家和政治學(xué)家同樣也在重新探索中國海洋史研究。最近,學(xué)術(shù)界出現(xiàn)了“范式轉(zhuǎn)變”的潮流。中國古代海洋,不再被視為邊緣或次要的區(qū)域。(4)最近兩部中國新海洋史的代表作,對傳統(tǒng)觀點提出了挑戰(zhàn),參見:Zheng Yangwen (鄭揚(yáng)文),China on the Sea:How the Maritime World Shaped Modern China,Leiden:Brill,2012;Gang Zhao (趙剛),The Qing Opening to the Ocean:Chinese Maritime Policies,1684-1757,Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press,2013.新的研究范式,以廣泛利用各種各樣的資料,如考古文物、文學(xué)作品、官方文件、日記、碑刻、圖像、民族志田野調(diào)查和語言證據(jù)等為主要特點。以往的研究,學(xué)者們沉溺于歐洲中心論或中國中心論的研究模式,常將中國與西方簡單地二元對立。然而,當(dāng)代學(xué)者已跳出這種舊的研究藩籬,將歐洲人視為眾多外來者中的一個群體,從而探索西方是如何遵守和適應(yīng)亞洲本已建立起來的成熟模式和慣例。(5)Zurndorfer,“Oceans of History,Seas of Change”,pp.62-63.這種新趨勢,為開辟新的課題鋪平了道路。如今,亞洲海洋史研究的范圍非常寬廣,如海洋考古、港口城市、航線、貿(mào)易和文化網(wǎng)絡(luò)、移民、地方宗教信仰、海洋法、外交、海防、海盜和走私等,均有涉及。

南海,擁有370萬平方公里的遼闊海域。從中國南部到東南亞,大大小小的島嶼星羅棋布,南海、北部灣、泰國灣、蘇祿海、西里伯斯海和爪哇海分布其間,構(gòu)成了邊界緩沖地帶。這片海域,是多種文明交匯的十字路口。Craig Lockard教授敏銳地指出,南海不但是中國航海者的活動場所,同時也是東南亞、印度、阿拉伯半島、波斯、葡萄牙、西班牙、荷蘭、法國和英國等國航海者的聚集地。(6)Craig A.Lockard,“‘The Sea Common to All’:Maritime Frontiers,Port Cities,and Chinese Traders in the Southeast Asian Age of Commerce,ca.1400-1750”,Journal of World History,Vol.21,No.2 (2010),pp.219-247;Craig A.Lockard,Southeast Asia in World History,New York:Oxford University Press,2009.過去幾千年,南海航線縱橫交錯,從一個島嶼到另外一個島嶼,從一個港口到另外一個港口,密如網(wǎng)織。通過南海,中國、日本、琉球群島和東南亞等地得以聯(lián)通印度洋,甚至到達(dá)更遠(yuǎn)處的紅海和地中海。(7)有關(guān)航線問題,可參考Roderich Ptak (普塔克),“Jottings on Chinese Sailing Routes to Southeast Asia,Especially on the Eastern Route in Ming Times”,in Roderich Ptak ed.,China,the Portuguese,and the Nanyang,Aldershot:Ashgate,2004;Karl Reinhold Haellquist ed.,Asian Trade Routes,Copenhagen and London:Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies and Curzon Press,1991;Paul Van Dyke(范岱克),“New Sea Routes to Canton in the 18th Century and the Decline of China’s Control over Trade”,Haiyang shi yanjiu (《海洋史研究》),No.1 (2010),pp.57-108.有關(guān)中國與伊斯蘭的文化交流,可參考:Hyunhee Park (樸賢熙),Mapping the Chinese and Islamic Worlds:Cross-Cultural Exchange in Pre-Modern Asia,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2012.

考古研究表明,早在歐洲人出現(xiàn)在南海之前,這片海域就已是充滿活力的交錯之地。1998年,印度尼西亞沿海發(fā)現(xiàn)了一艘9世紀(jì)的阿拉伯沉船。值得注意的是,沉船上載有7萬件由穆斯林所定制的中國陶瓷器。毫無疑問,這是中國和西印度洋直接貿(mào)易的有力證據(jù)。這艘沉船還載有大量西亞制造的商品,表明該船可能從當(dāng)時的室利佛逝(三佛齊)出發(fā)。(8)Michael Flecker,“A Ninth-Century Arab Shipwreck in Indonesia:The First Archaeological Evidence of Direct Trade with China”,in Regina Krahl ,John Guy,and Julian Raby eds.,Shipwrecked:Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds,Washington and Singapore:Arthur M.Sackler Gallery and National Heritage and Tourism Board,2010,pp.101-119 (online at www.asia.si.edu/Shipwrecked/downloads /07Flecker.pdf,accessed 5 March 2017);Denis Twitchett (崔瑞德)and Janice Stargardt (思鑒),“Chinese Silver Bullion in a Tenth-century Indonesian Shipwreck”,Asia Major,3rd Series,Vol.15,No.1 (2002),pp.23-72.其它相關(guān)的海洋考古發(fā)現(xiàn),可參考:Jeremy Green (格林),“The Song Dynasty Shipwreck at Quanzhou,F(xiàn)ujian,People’s Republic of China”,International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration Vol.12,No.3 (1983),pp.253-261;Sayan Prishanchit,Maritime Trade During the 14th to 17th Century:Evidence from the Underwater Archaeological Sites in the Gulf of Thailand,Bangkok:Office of the National Culture Division,1996;Pierre-Yves Manguin (莽甘),“The Archaeology of the Early Maritime Polities of Southeast Asia”,in Peter Bellwood and Ian C.Glover eds.,Southeast Asia:From Prehistory to History,London:Routledge Curzon,2004,pp.283-313;Jun Kimura(木村淳),“Maritime Archaeological Perspectives on Seaborne Trade in the South China Sea and East China Sea between the Seventh and Thirteenth Centuries”,Crossroads:Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World Vol.11 (2015),pp.47-61.

歷史文獻(xiàn)和考古發(fā)現(xiàn)都表明,早在漢代之前,中國就已經(jīng)與東南亞、南亞等地有著頻繁的間接貿(mào)易往來。徐聞、合浦、日南以及北海灣附近的商業(yè)區(qū)域發(fā)揮著重要作用。(9)James Chin (錢江),“Ports,Merchants,Chieftains and Eunuchs:Reading Maritime Commerce of Early Guangdong”,in Geoff Wade ed.,China and Southeast Asia:Routledge Library on Southeast Asia,Vol.1,Introduction and History to the 14th Century,London:Routledge,2009,pp.55-74;Li Tana (李塔娜),“Jiaozhi (Giao Chi)in the Han Period Tongking Gulf”,in Nola Cooke,Li Tana,and James A.Anderson eds.,The Tongking Gulf Through History,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2011,pp.39-52.最近,Judith Cameron將長途海運(yùn)的歷史向前推至史前時期,并提出“史前海上絲綢之路”的概念。她認(rèn)為,現(xiàn)存的有力證據(jù)表明,史前時期,從南海到印度洋再到馬達(dá)加斯加,存在著一系列相互重合和交叉的貿(mào)易區(qū)域。她指出,考古發(fā)現(xiàn)表明,諸多歷史時期的貿(mào)易路線建立在史前路線基礎(chǔ)之上。(10)Judith Cameron,“A Prehistoric Maritime Silk Road:Merchants,Boats,Cloth and Jade”,in Robert Antony and Angela Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads:New Discourses on China’s Role in East Asian Maritime History,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag,2017,pp.25-42.

從9世紀(jì)開始,中國參與國際事務(wù)的活動開始增多。中國商人不再局限于充當(dāng)中間商的角色,而是逐漸對外展開直接貿(mào)易。這一現(xiàn)象,在10世紀(jì)之后,更加明顯。伴隨著城市、市場和貨幣經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展,宋代開始了一場商業(yè)革命,東南沿海的表現(xiàn)尤為突出。(11)Angela Schottenhammer,“China’s Rise and Retreat as a Maritime Power”,in Antony and Schottenhammer (eds.),Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.189-212;John W.Chaffee,“Song China and the Multi-state and Commercial World of East Asia”,Crossroads-Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World,Vol.1/2 (2010).泉州、廣州已明顯呈現(xiàn)出國際化大都市的特征,來自伊朗、阿拉伯、印度和東南亞的商人在此居住生活,形成離散社區(qū)。(12)有關(guān)泉州的研究,可參考:John Chaffee(賈志揚(yáng)),“At the Intersection of Empire and World Trade:The Chinese Port City of Quanzhou (Zaitun),Eleventh-Fifteenth Centuries”,in Kenneth R.Hall ed.,Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm,c.1400 -1800,Lanham:Lexington Books,2008,pp.99-121;Hugh R.Clark (柯胡),“Overseas Trade and Social Change in Quanzhou through the Song”,in Angela Schottenhammer ed.,The Emporium of the World:Maritime Quanzhou,1000-1400,Leiden:Brill,2001,pp.47-94;Chen Dasheng (陳達(dá)生)and Denys Lombard (龍巴爾),“Foreign Merchants in Maritime Trade in Quanzhou (‘Zaitun’):Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries”,in Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin eds.,Asian Merchants and Businessmen in the Indian Ocean and the China Sea,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000,pp.19-24;Billy So (蘇基朗),Prosperity,Region,and Institutions in Maritime China:The South Fukien Pattern,946-1368,Cambridge:Harvard University Asia Center,2000.有關(guān)早期廣州的研究,可參考:Lo Hsiang-lin (羅香林),“Islam in Canton in the Sung Period:Some Fragmentary Records”,in F.S.Drake ed.,Symposium on Historical,Archeological and Linguistic Studies on Southern China,South-East Asia and the Hong Kong Region,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,1967;James Chin,“Ports,Merchants,Chieftains and Eunuchs”;Adam Fong (許文富),“‘Together They Might Make Trouble’:Cross-Cultural Interactions in Tang Dynasty Guangzhou,618-907 c.e.,” Journal of World History,Vol.25,No.4 (2014),pp.475-492;Adam Fong,“Flourishing on the Frontier:Trade and Urbanization in Tang Dynasty Guangzhou,618-907 CE” (PhD dissertation,University of Hawaii,2009).有關(guān)中國穆斯林社區(qū)的研究,可參考:John Chaffee,“Diasporic Identities in the Historical Development of the Maritime Muslim Communities of Song-Yuan China”,Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient,Vol.49,No.4 (2006),pp.395-420;Hugh R.Clark,“Muslims and Hindus in the Culture and Morphology of Quanzhou from the Tenth to the Thirteenth Centuries”,Journal of World History Vol.6,No.1 (1995),pp.49-74.中國商人、其他亞洲商人和歐洲商人,通過連接南海和印度洋海外社區(qū)之間的貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡(luò),展開了大規(guī)模的跨區(qū)域貿(mào)易。(13)Angela Schottenhammer,“China’s Gate to the Indian Ocean:Iranian and Arab Long-Distance Traders”,Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Vol.76,No.1 (2016),pp.135-179;Richard von Glahn (萬志英),“The Ningbo-Hakata Merchant Network and the Reorientation of East Asian Maritime Trade,1150-1350”,Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Vol.74,No.2 (2014),pp.249-279;Tansen Sen(沈丹森),“The Formation of Chinese Maritime Networks to Southern Asia,1200-1450”,Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Vol.49,No.4 (2006),pp.421-53;Derek Heng (王添順),Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century,Athens,OH:Ohio University Press,2009.Franck Billé,Sanjyot Mehendale,and James Lankton eds.,The Maritime Silk Road:Global Connectivities,Regional Nodes,Localities,Amsterdam:University of Amsterdam Press,2022.賈志揚(yáng)(John Chaffee)對著名的中國穆斯林蒲氏富商家族進(jìn)行了詳細(xì)研究。宋元時期,作為海商和地方官,蒲氏在泉州政治和經(jīng)濟(jì)事務(wù)中扮演著重要角色。泉州蒲氏家族與越南、海南島的蒲氏家族有著密切的商業(yè)往來。(14)John Chaffee,“Pu Shougeng Reconsidered:Pu,His Family,and their Role in the Maritime Trade of Quanzhou”,in Antony and Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.63-76;Li Tana,“A View from the Sea:Perspectives on the Northern and Central Vietnamese Coast”,Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Vol.37,No.1 (2006),pp.93-94.

過去相當(dāng)長一段時間內(nèi),西方學(xué)術(shù)界大都集中關(guān)注元代陸上絲綢之路和中歐之間的陸上經(jīng)濟(jì)往來,而較少細(xì)致研究元代海洋史。然而,事實上,元代政府同樣也非常積極鼓勵中國與外界的海洋貿(mào)易和宗教文化交流。為招徠朝貢和貿(mào)易,元代統(tǒng)治者派出了眾多外交和貿(mào)易使團(tuán)奔赴海外各地,甚至遠(yuǎn)至印度。(15)Tansen Sen,“The Yuan Khanate and India:Cross-Cultural Diplomacy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries”,Asia Major,3rd Series Vol.19,No.1-2 (2006),pp.299-326.盡管元朝政府在1285-1325年間曾偶爾禁止海外貿(mào)易和旅行,但之后卻極大放寬了海洋政策。人類學(xué)家魏澤福(Jack Weatherford)指出,作為新開放政策的一部分,成吉思汗同樣提倡宗教自由,并幫助伊斯蘭教、佛教、道教、儒教、天主教和瑣羅亞斯德教(祆教)在他廣闊的歐亞帝國傳播。(16)Jack Weatherford,Genghis Khan and the Quest for God:How the World’s Greatest Conqueror Gave Us Religious Freedom,New York:Viking,2016;Richard Foltz,Religions of the Silk Road:Premodern Patterns of Globalization,2nd ed.,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010.然而,與此同時,元朝又不斷加緊對日本和越南的軍事征服行動。(17)Schottenhammer,“China’s Rise and Retreat as a Maritime Power”,pp.200-202.Randall J.Sasaki,The Origins of the Lost Fleet of the Mongol Empire,College Station,TX:Texas A&M University Press,2015.對于元朝中央統(tǒng)治者來講,海洋貿(mào)易和海外征服,似乎可以同時進(jìn)行,并行不悖。最近,在對山東海洋史的研究中,馬光強(qiáng)調(diào)了元朝開展海洋活動的重要性,并對元末明初倭寇、中國與朝鮮半島之間的私人貿(mào)易等問題進(jìn)行了深入探討。(18)Ma Guang (馬光),“Tributary Ceremony and National Security:A Reassessment of Wokou Diplomacy between China and Japan during the Early Ming Dynasty”,Journal of Asian History,Vol.51,No.1 (2017),pp.27-54;Rupture,Evolution and Continuity:The Shandong Peninsula in East Asian Maritime History During the Yuan-Ming Transition,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz,2021.

傳統(tǒng)史學(xué)界認(rèn)為,明朝一改前朝海洋開放政策,轉(zhuǎn)而實行嚴(yán)厲的海禁政策,只允許朝貢貿(mào)易。然而,最近一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為,明朝海洋貿(mào)易事實上并非一潭死水,而是有其繁榮的一面,這種狀況,甚至一直持續(xù)到清前期。直到1800年前后,才出現(xiàn)了所謂的中西“大分流”。(19)有關(guān)明代海洋政策,可參考:Li Kangying (李康英),The Ming Maritime Trade Policy in Transition,1368 to 1567,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag,2010.有關(guān)“大分流”及其討論,可參考:Kenneth Pomeranz(彭慕蘭),The Great Divergence:China,Europe,and the Making of the Modern World Economy,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2000;Jean-Laurent Rosenthal and R.Bin Wong,Before and Beyond Divergence:The Politics of Economic Change in China and Europe,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2011;Peer Vries,“The California School and Beyond:How to Study the Great Divergence?”,History Compass Vol.8,No.7 (2010),pp.730-751;Robert Eng (伍健民),“From ‘The West and the Rest’ to Global Interconnectedness:China Historians and the Transformation of World History as a Discipline”,ASIANetwork Exchange,Vol.22,No.2 (2015),pp.35-48.Angela Schottenhammer,China and the Silk Roads (ca.100 BCE to 1800 CE),Leiden:Brill,2023.趙剛、布琮任通過對清代海洋史的考察,認(rèn)為清代的海洋政策并非消極被動以致充滿防御性,而是有其積極、務(wù)實和靈活的一面。(20)Gang Zhao,The Qing Opening to the Ocean:Chinese Maritime Policies,1684-1757;Ronald C.Po (布琮任),The Blue Frontier:Maritime Vision and Power in the Qing Empire,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2018.大致與此同時,16世紀(jì)至17世紀(jì)早期,日本和東南亞同樣也開始在蓬勃發(fā)展的世界經(jīng)濟(jì)中占據(jù)更加重要的地位。事實上,德川時期,日本將自己視為亞洲中心,開啟“日本中心”模式,這一度挑戰(zhàn)了中國長期以來在亞洲的主導(dǎo)地位,萌發(fā)了日本自身的國家認(rèn)同意識。(21)有關(guān)德川幕府時期日本的新世界觀,可參考:Arano Yasunori (荒野泰典),“The Formation of a Japanocentric World Order”,International Journal of Asian Studies Vol.2,No.2 (2005),pp.185-216.有關(guān)近世日本對太平洋和海洋亞洲的精彩論述,可參考:Marcia Yonemoto,“Maps and Metaphors of the ‘Small Eastern Sea’ in Tokugawa Japan (1603-1868)”,Geographical Review Vol.89,No.2 (1999),pp.169-187.有關(guān)東南亞的情況,可參考:Lockard,Southeast Asia in World History,Chapter 4.

明朝與清前期,海外貿(mào)易只允許在朝貢體系中進(jìn)行,所以大部分的海外貿(mào)易只能秘密進(jìn)行。然而,朝貢體系并非天衣無縫。為方便監(jiān)督日本進(jìn)貢的商品,中國政府雇傭一批私人掮客參與其事,掮客則借機(jī)與官員和商人串通勾結(jié),從事盈利的半合法私人貿(mào)易活動。(22)Angela Schottenhammer,“‘Brokers’ and ‘Guild’ (huiguan)Organizations in China’s Maritime Trade with her Eastern Neighbours during the Ming and Qing Dynasties”,Crossroads:Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World,Vol.1 (2010),pp.108-113;Oláh Csaba,“Chinese Brokers and Sino-Japanese Trade during the Ming Period - A Case Study from 1539”,in Angela Schottenhammer ed.,Tribute,Trade and Smuggling:Commercial,Scientific and Human Interaction in the Middle Period and Early Modern World,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag,2014,pp.23-39.需要指出的是,大部分的海上貿(mào)易仍由來自各國的走私者和海盜主導(dǎo)。彼時,中國官方將這些海盜稱為倭寇。其實,眾所周知,這些非法之徒中,除日本海盜之外,很多都是中國的商人,如王(汪)直、洪迪珍、鄭芝龍等,其他則為東南亞、歐洲及非洲的船員、商人和冒險家。(23)Kwan-wai So (蘇均煒),Japanese Piracy in Ming China during the Sixteenth Century,East Lansing:Michigan State University Press,1975,該書雖出版較早,但至今仍有學(xué)術(shù)價值。有關(guān)中國對倭寇的想象,可參考:Wang Yong,“Realistic and Fantastic Images of ‘Dwarf Pirates’:The Evolution of Ming Dynasty Perceptions of the Japanese”,in Joshua Fogel ed.,Sagacious Monks and Bloodthirsty Warriors:Chinese Views of Japan in the Ming-Qing Period,Norwalk,CT:East Bridge,2002,pp.17-41.最近西方對中國海盜的歷史研究述評,可參考:Patrick Connolly (余康力)and Robert Antony,“‘A Terrible Scourge’:Piracy,Coastal Defense,and the Historian”,in Teddy Y.H.Sim ed.,The Maritime Defence of China:Ming General Qi Jiguang and Beyond,Singapore:Springer,2017.一些貿(mào)易是在浙江、福建、廣東等地的偏僻小港口進(jìn)行,但大部分貿(mào)易是在眾多近海島上進(jìn)行,如雙嶼、南澳、龍門、潿洲等。這些島嶼是各國走私者、海盜、商人的聚集地。在這里,他們的交易可以避開官府的監(jiān)管。(24)James Chin,“Merchants,Smugglers,and Pirates:Multinational Clandestine Trade on the South China Coast,1520-50”,pp.43-57;Maria Grazia Petrucci,“Pirates,Gunpowder,and Christianity in Late Sixteenth-Century Japan”,pp.59-72,both in Robert J.Antony ed.,Elusive Pirates,Pervasive Smugglers:Violence and Clandestine Trade in the Greater China Seas,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2010.有關(guān)這一時期中越水域邊境的貿(mào)易商和海盜的研究,可參考:Robert J.Antony,“War,Trade,and Piracy in Early Modern Gulf of Tonkin”,in Schottenhammer ed.,Tribute,Trade,and Smuggling,pp.77-94;Xing Hang (杭行),“Leizhou Pirates and the Making of the Mekong Delta”,in Antony and Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.115-132.歐陽泰(Tonio Andrade)指出,鄭芝龍及其繼承者,以福建和臺灣為基地,通過對中國、日本、荷蘭和巴達(dá)維亞等地統(tǒng)治者、官員和商人的嫻熟控制,建立了橫跨南海的龐大海洋帝國。他認(rèn)為,如果把海盜問題置于全球史這一更大的框架下去考察,將有助于我們進(jìn)一步理解海盜與國家間的交互作用是如何幫助歐洲進(jìn)行擴(kuò)張的。(25)Tonio Andrade,“The Company’s Chinese Pirates:How the Dutch East India Company Tried to Lead a Coalition of Privateers to War against China”,Journal of World History,Vol.15 (2004),pp.415-44.近期對鄭氏家族的其它研究成果,可參考:Patrizia Carioti (白蒂),“The Zhengs’ Maritime Power in the Context of the 17th Century Far Eastern Seas:The Rise of a ‘Centralized Piratical Organization’ and Its Gradual Development into a ‘State’”,Ming-Qing Yanjiu,Vol.5 (1996);Cheng Wei-chung (鄭維中),War,Trade and Piracy in the China Seas,1622-1683,Leiden:Brill,2013;Xing Hang,Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia:The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World,1620-1720,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2016.

許多活躍在中國沿海的日本海盜,亦盜亦商。有時,他們受到日本地方官員甚至國家統(tǒng)治者的支持。正如Maria Grazia Petrucci所言,早期薩摩大名和德川幕府一邊采取措施鎮(zhèn)壓國內(nèi)海盜,一邊卻又允許外國海盜集團(tuán)取代他們。平戶作為日本的重要港口,是日本、中國、荷蘭和英國等國海盜、走私者、商人活動的國際大本營,各色人物混雜于此,難以區(qū)分。Adam Clulow對平戶海盜的研究,進(jìn)一步豐富了我們對這一時期海盜活動的理解。正如同時代的中國人和歐洲人一樣,日本商人也積極地將他們的觸角伸向東南亞港口和市場。有時,他們和海盜并無二致。(26)Maria Grazia Petrucci,“Caught Between Piracy and Trade:The Shimazu of Southern Japan at the Onset of the New Tokugawa Regime,1599-1630”,in Antony and Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.99-114;Adam Clulow,“The Pirate and the Warlord”,Journal of Early Modern History,Vol.16 (2012),pp.523-542;Adam Clulow,“Like Lambs in Japan and Devils Outside Their Land:Diplomacy,Violence,and Japanese Merchants in Southeast Asia”,Journal of World History Vol.24,No.2 (2013),pp.335-358;Igawa Kenji,“At the Crossroads:Limahon and Wakō in Sixteenth-Century Philippines”,in Antony ed.,Elusive Pirates,Pervasive Smugglers,pp.73-84.

自16世紀(jì)起,葡萄牙和西班牙開始進(jìn)入亞洲。隨后,荷蘭、英國等國家也接踵而至。此時的亞洲貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡(luò)已相當(dāng)成熟,作為后來者,為了生存和獲利,他們被迫尋求融入這一網(wǎng)絡(luò)的方式。事實上,大部分商船就是一座浮動的軍械庫,船上的武器裝備遠(yuǎn)超和平貿(mào)易所需的配置。16世紀(jì)50年代,葡萄牙開始在澳門站穩(wěn)腳跟。葡萄牙商人不僅參與貿(mào)易,而且還時常搶劫村莊,擄掠或購買兒童,將之再轉(zhuǎn)手賣為奴隸。(27)例如,Lúcio de Sousa (蘇札),The Jewish Diaspora and the Perez Family Case in China,Japan,the Philippines,and the Americas (16th Century),Macau:Macau Foundation,2015;James Fujitani,“The Ming Rejection of the Portuguese Embassy of 1517:A Reassessment”,Journal of World History Vol.27,No.1 (2016),pp.99-101.Ubaldo Iaccarino指出,當(dāng)西班牙到達(dá)亞洲時,他們帶著大無畏征服者的精神,試圖用他們在新世界所使用過的暴力方式,去掠取中國的財富。隨后,荷蘭和英國東印度公司也準(zhǔn)備使用暴力去打開市場和消滅敵人。事實上,荷蘭人在日本開展貿(mào)易時,以掠奪方式獲取了大量的絲綢、緞子和瓷器。在帝國擴(kuò)張時期,暴力行為不但被歐洲人,而且被亞洲人所認(rèn)可,甚至被認(rèn)為這是必要手段。(28)Timothy Brook (卜正民),The Confusions of Pleasure:Commerce and Culture in Ming China,Berkeley:University of California Press,1998,pp.122-123;Robert J.Antony,“Turbulent Waters:Sea Raiding in Early Modern South East Asia”,Mariner’s Mirror Vol.99,No.1 (2013),pp.25-27;Adam Clulow,The Company and the Shogun:The Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan,New York:Columbia University Press,2014,Part 2;Anne Pérotin-Dumon,“The Pirate and the Emperor:Power and the Law on the Seas,1450-1850”,in C.R.Pennell ed.,Bandits at Sea:A Pirates Reader,New York:New York University Press,2001,pp.25-54.

無疑,這些暴力行為造成了政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會方面的緊張局勢。盡管如此,它卻加速了互相交織的國際經(jīng)濟(jì)體系的形成。在這個體系中,南海成為“歐亞貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡(luò)的核心”。(29)Lockard,“The Sea Common to All”,pp.226-227.同時,也可參考:John Lee,“Trade and Economy in Preindustrial East Asia,ca.1500-ca.1800:East Asia in the Age of Global Integration”,Journal of Asian Studies Vol.58,No.1 (1999),pp.2-26.17世紀(jì)后期,所有的歐亞地區(qū)都被卷入了深不見底的中國市場和新興世界經(jīng)濟(jì)。(30)Jerry H.Bentley (本特利),“Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks of Historical Analysis”,Geographical Review,Vol.89 (1999),pp.220-221;James Warren,The Sulu Zone,1768-1898:The Dynamics of External Trade,Slavery,and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State,Singapore:National University of Singapore Press,1981;James Warren,Iranun and Balangingi:Globalization,Maritime Raiding and the Birth of Ethnicity,Singapore:National University of Singapore Press,2003.數(shù)量巨大的新世界白銀跨過大西洋,到達(dá)馬尼拉,然后又被運(yùn)到中國,用于交易絲綢、瓷器、茶葉和其它商品。隨著中國經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展,中國對東南亞商品,尤其是異域美味,如燕窩、魚翅、海參,還有珍珠、龜殼、胡椒、丁香、糖、米和錫等,需求量大增。歐洲商人也積極收求同樣的當(dāng)?shù)禺a(chǎn)品,然后再轉(zhuǎn)手賣到中國。印度的鴉片在東南亞、中國和日本等地開始盛行。這里不僅是貨物的聚散地,同時也是世界各地人民的流動場所。(31)Carl Smith (施其樂)and Paul Van Dyke,“Armenian Footprints in Macao”,Review of Culture,International Edition,Vol.8 (2003),pp.20-39;“Four Armenian Families”,Review of Culture,International Edition,Vol.8 (2003),pp.40-50;“Muslims in the Pearl River Delta,1700 to 1930”,Review of Culture,International Edition,Vol.10 (2004),pp.6-15.1684年,中國解除海禁后,大量來自廣東和福建的移民,寓居于此。這種狀況,一直持續(xù)到19世紀(jì)末。隨著東南亞中國移民的增加,中國的茶葉、瓷器、居家用品等商品也逐漸增多,用于滿足日益增長的市場需求。東亞的其他商品,也流向印度洋、歐洲和美洲。(32)對商品流動的研究,可參考:Paul Wheatley (鮑威里),“Geographical Notes on Some Commodities Involved in Sung Maritime Trade”,Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.32,No.2 (1959),pp.4-5129;Rodrich Ptak,“China and the Trade in Cloves,circa 960-1435”,Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol.113,No.1 (1993),pp.1-13;David Bulbeck,Anthony Reid(瑞德),Lay Cheng Tan,and Yi Qi Wu eds.,Southeast Asian Exports since the Fourteenth Century:Cloves,Pepper,Coffee,and Sugar,Leiden:KITLV Press,1998;Eric Tagliacozzo,“A Necklace of Fins:Marine Goods Trading in Maritime Southeast Asia,1780-1860”,International Journal of Asian Studies Vol.1,No.1 (2004),pp.23-48;Eric Tagliacozzo and Wen-Chin Chang (eds.),Chinese Circulations:Capital,Commodities,and Networks in Southeast Asia,Durham:Duke University Press,2011.Tamara H.Bentley ed.,Picturing Commerce in and from the East Asian Maritime Circuits,1550-1800,Amsterdam:Amsterdam University Press,2019.有關(guān)中國移民的研究,可參考:Wang Gungwu (王賡武),China and the Chinese Overseas,Singapore:Times Academic Press,1991;Philip A.Kuhn (孔飛力),Chinese among Others:Emigration in Modern Times,Lanham:Rowman and Littlefield,2008;Chen Boyi (陳博翼),“The Hokkien in Early Modern Hoi An,Batavia,and Manila:Political Agendas and Selective Adaptions,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Vol.52,No.1 (2021),pp.67-89.

從以上分析可以看到,目前英語學(xué)術(shù)界對亞洲海洋史的研究興趣有增無減,在研究的廣度和深度上,都有所進(jìn)展。一方面,學(xué)術(shù)界不斷發(fā)掘和利用新資料,廣泛利用文物、碑刻、圖像、語言證據(jù)等傳統(tǒng)學(xué)者不太重視的資料,并重視田野調(diào)查在研究中的作用。另一方面,學(xué)術(shù)界逐漸轉(zhuǎn)變研究視角和范式,開始跳出歐洲中心論和中國中心論的簡單二元對立研究模式的束縛,從全球史角度對亞洲海洋史進(jìn)行考察,尤其重視考察來自多個國家或地區(qū)的不同群體之間的交流和相互影響。

在漫長的歷史時期,通過陸上絲綢之路和海上絲綢之路,中國曾深度參與外面世界的活動。早在16世紀(jì)歐洲人到來之前,南海在相當(dāng)長的一段時間內(nèi),就是中國、日本、東南亞、南亞和穆斯林航海者的國際接觸地帶,甚至在更早的史前時期,航海者就已開創(chuàng)航海路線,為后來航海者和商人的航線奠定了基礎(chǔ)。

今天,中國的“一帶一路”倡議正在追尋和恢復(fù)歷史上的先例,并試圖建造一個跨越歐亞大陸及其周邊地區(qū)的全球網(wǎng)絡(luò)。通過大規(guī)模的投資,中國著力發(fā)展以中國為中心的貿(mào)易、文化和科技網(wǎng)絡(luò),以求在國際事務(wù)中扮演更重要的角色。

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