孫圣思,嵇少丞,2
(1.加拿大蒙特利爾大學(xué)工學(xué)院民用、地質(zhì)、采礦工程系,蒙特利爾H3C 3A7;2.中國地質(zhì)科學(xué)院地質(zhì)研究所,國土資源部大陸動(dòng)力學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京100037)
大洋板塊俯沖帶地震波各向異性及剪切波分裂的成因機(jī)制
孫圣思1,嵇少丞1,2
(1.加拿大蒙特利爾大學(xué)工學(xué)院民用、地質(zhì)、采礦工程系,蒙特利爾H3C 3A7;2.中國地質(zhì)科學(xué)院地質(zhì)研究所,國土資源部大陸動(dòng)力學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京100037)
大洋板塊俯沖帶是許多重要地質(zhì)作用(例如脫水、部分熔融、巖漿和地震活動(dòng))發(fā)生的場所。對(duì)位于俯沖帶之上的地震臺(tái)站所檢測到的不同剪切波的數(shù)據(jù)解析,可以獲得源于上覆板塊、地幔楔、俯沖板塊和板下地幔的地震波各向異性的關(guān)鍵信息。本文系統(tǒng)總結(jié)了世界各地大洋俯沖帶的剪切波分裂樣式,對(duì)目前國際上流行的大洋俯沖帶的地震波各向異性的主要成因模式(例如地幔楔拐角流、與海溝遷移有關(guān)的平行海溝的地幔流、橄欖石位錯(cuò)蠕變形成各類組構(gòu)以及蛇紋石化的影響等)進(jìn)行了較為詳盡地評(píng)述。由橄欖石(010)[100]、(010)[001]、(100)[001]、{0kl}[100]、(001)[100]和{110}[001]位錯(cuò)蠕變形成的晶格優(yōu)選定向(LPO)分別稱之為 A 型、B 型、C 型、D型、E型和F型組構(gòu),其中A型、D型和E型組構(gòu)總是導(dǎo)致剪切快波的偏振方向(φ)平行于地幔流的方向,而B型組構(gòu)則導(dǎo)致φ垂直于地幔流的方向。C型組構(gòu)雖然也能使φ平行于地幔流方向,但快慢波之間的延遲時(shí)間(δt)則不如同等條件下A型組構(gòu)形成的那么大。F型組構(gòu)導(dǎo)致剪切波在垂直于地幔流動(dòng)面的方向上傳播時(shí)幾乎不發(fā)生分裂。葉蛇紋石是俯沖板塊地幔和地幔楔中最主要的含水礦物,具極低的流變強(qiáng)度、很低的地震波速和很大的彈性各向異性。蛇紋石化程度越高,變形地幔巖的各向異性就越大,則弧前地幔楔的剪切波分裂愈強(qiáng)。只要蛇紋石的含量超過10%~20%,則變形地幔巖的地震波各向異性特征將由蛇紋石的LPO主導(dǎo)。地幔楔的剪切波分裂特征主要取決于其蛇紋石化程度與俯沖角度,陡傾的俯沖和高程度的蛇紋石化有利于形成平行于海溝的φ。
大洋俯沖帶;地震波各向異性;剪切波分裂;橄欖石組構(gòu);海溝遷移;蛇紋巖化;地幔楔
在各向異性介質(zhì)中傳播的剪切波(S波)會(huì)分裂成兩個(gè)偏振方向相互垂直、速度不同的子波,速度快的是快波(Vs1),速度慢的是慢波(Vs2),兩者之間的走時(shí)差或稱延遲時(shí)間(δt)是剪切波穿越途徑上介質(zhì)的彈性各向異性的度量??觳ǖ钠穹较?φ)平行于該介質(zhì)中與剪切波傳播方向垂直的面上的速度最快的方向,與有限應(yīng)變橢球主軸(X,Y,Z)或主切面(例如構(gòu)造線理和面理或剪切面)方位具一定的幾何關(guān)系。φ和δt是目前量化地殼和上地幔剪切波各向異性的兩個(gè)重要參數(shù)。
板塊俯沖帶不僅是地球上構(gòu)造活動(dòng)極為活躍的地區(qū),而且是相變、脫水、部分熔融、巖漿作用和地震活動(dòng)的重要場所,因而理所當(dāng)然地成為剪切波分裂研究的重要對(duì)象。通過分析俯沖帶之上地震臺(tái)站所檢測到的不同剪切波數(shù)據(jù)可以區(qū)分各向異性的來源:上覆板塊、地幔楔、俯沖板塊或俯沖板塊之下的地幔(圖1)。
圖1 S波和SKS波的傳播路徑及其所反映的地震波速各向異性的源區(qū)(上覆板塊、地幔楔、俯沖板塊、板下地幔)Fig.1 Illustration of various raypaths of S and SKS waves that detect seismic anisotropy contributed by different parts of subduction system(i.e.,the overriding plate,the mantle wedge,the subducting slab,and the subwedge mantle)
(1)由震源位于俯沖板塊的地震所產(chǎn)生的S波,經(jīng)地幔楔直接傳到上覆板塊上的地震臺(tái)站,主要記錄了地幔楔的各向異性(Fischer and Wiens,1996;Fischer et al.,2000;Levin et al.,2004;Long and van der Hilst,2006;Pozgay et al.,2007;Abt et al.,2009),因?yàn)橐话銇碚f地殼對(duì)S波分裂的貢獻(xiàn)很小 (Ji and Salisbury,1993;McNamara et al.,1994;Herquel et al.,1995;Sherrington et al.,2004;Frederiksen et al.,2003;Ozacar and Zandt,2004)。例如,新西蘭Alpine右旋走滑斷裂經(jīng)過地區(qū)的地殼的S波分裂δt≤0.1 s,雖然實(shí)驗(yàn)室內(nèi)測定采自該斷裂帶的構(gòu)造片巖和糜棱巖的地震波速各向異性高達(dá) 17%(Okaya et al.,1995;Godfrey et al.,2000),上述差異很可能是由于測量的尺度效應(yīng)造成的,在天然S波穿越范圍(直徑約40 km的圓柱體)內(nèi),多期多階段的變形相互疊加形成極其復(fù)雜的構(gòu)造樣式,不同方向的各向異性彼此消減,甚至抵消(Ji and Salisbury,1993;Ji et al.,1994;Pulford et al.,2003)。
(2)由震源位于俯沖板塊的地震所產(chǎn)生并向板下地幔傳播的S波,被遠(yuǎn)處的地震臺(tái)站記錄,其數(shù)據(jù)經(jīng)過分析校正后可以得出地幔楔以下,即俯沖板塊和板下地幔的各向異性(Russo and Silver,1994;Russo,2009)。
(3)由俯沖帶之上地震臺(tái)站記錄到的遠(yuǎn)震SKS或SKKS分裂,反映其近垂直傳播路徑上所有各向異性層的綜合信息,減去地幔楔的貢獻(xiàn)就可得出俯沖板塊及其板下地幔的各向異性信息(Abt et al.,2010)。
20世紀(jì)下葉,Ando et al.(1983),F(xiàn)ukao(1984),Bowman and Ando(1987)等率先發(fā)表了日本列島和湯加地區(qū)的俯沖帶剪切波分裂的數(shù)據(jù)。此后,地震學(xué)家分別對(duì)全球幾十個(gè)俯沖帶開展了地震波各向異性的研究。Long and Silver(2008,2009)綜合總結(jié)了全球15個(gè)俯沖帶剪切波分裂的特征(圖2)。該圖中藍(lán)色和紅色雙箭頭分別代表φMW和φSW方向,φ代表剪切快波的偏振方向,其下標(biāo)MW和SW分別代表地幔楔(Mantle Wedge)和地幔楔以下的俯沖板塊及其板下地幔(Subwedge)。
地幔楔以下的剪切波分裂特征較為簡單。φSW大多平行海溝,例如太平洋北側(cè)的阿留申列島(Long and Silver,2008)、西北側(cè)的勘察加半島-千島群島(Peyton et al.,2001;Levin et al.,2004)、臺(tái)灣以東的琉球群島(Long and van der Hilst,2005,2006)、伊豆 -小笠原 -馬里亞納群島(Wirth and Long,2010;Wookey et al.,2005)、湯加 -克馬德克-新西蘭列島(Long and Silver,2008;Audoine et al.,2004)、中美洲和南美洲南部的西海岸(Abt et al.,2009;Polet et al.,2000;Russo and Silver,1994)、印度洋東側(cè)的蘇門答臘(Long and Silver,2009)等。但在日本本州島,φSW大多斜交于海溝的走向(Long and Silver,2009)。在北美洲西海岸的卡斯卡迪亞(Cascadia)地區(qū)(Currie et al.,2004)、南美洲的中部(Polet et al.,2000)等,φSW近垂直于俯沖帶的走向。從全球范圍來看,地幔楔以下的剪切快慢波間的延遲時(shí)間(δtSW)變化范圍較大,例如在琉球群島δtSW不到0.2 s,幾乎可以看做是各向同性的(Long and van der Hilst,2005,2006),但在湯加-克馬德克俯沖帶δtSW的平均值為1.8 s,最大值甚至高達(dá)2.4 s(Long and Silver,2009)。
圖2 地幔楔和板下地幔的剪切波分裂的特征(分別以藍(lán)色與紅色表示)。雙箭頭表示剪切快波的平均偏振方向(φ),箭頭邊上的數(shù)字表示剪切快慢波之間平均的延遲時(shí)間(δt,以秒為單位)。所用資料來自Long and Becker(2010)。Fig.2 Shear wave splitting patterns of mantle wedge(blue)and subwedge mantle(red).Arrows indicate average fast polarization directions(φ),and numbers show the associated average delay times(δt,in sec).Data from Long and Becker(2010).
地幔楔的剪切波分裂情況比較復(fù)雜。一部分俯沖帶的φMW平行海溝,如阿留申列島、日本海和本州島西部(Fouch and Fischer,1996)、新西蘭的希庫朗伊(Hikurangi)俯沖帶 (Marson-Pidgen et al.,1999)、蘇門答臘地區(qū)(Hammond et al.,2010);另一部分俯沖帶的φMW基本垂直或高角度斜交于海溝,如伊豆-小笠原-馬里亞納群島(Fouch and Fischer,1996)和智利的西北部(Polet et al.,2000)。有趣的是,在一些俯沖帶(例如日本的東北部)出現(xiàn)從海溝向弧后盆地方向φMW轉(zhuǎn)變的情況:在弧前或海溝附近,φMW平行海溝,但在弧后盆地φMW垂直于海溝(Nakajima and Hasegawa,2004;Huang et al.,2011)。但是與上述情況相反的轉(zhuǎn)變也有報(bào)導(dǎo),例如在勘察加半島,在海溝附近,φMW垂直于海溝,但在弧后盆地 φMW卻平行于海溝(Levin et al.,2004)。還有的地幔楔,其φMW方向的變化更為復(fù)雜,尚難以歸納其特征,如日本從南部的九州到北邊的北海道,φMW時(shí)而平行、垂直或斜交于海溝走向(Salah et al.,2008;Wirth and Long,2010)。在全球范圍內(nèi),δtMW(地幔楔的快慢波之間的延遲時(shí)間)變化范圍也很大,如在南美的西海岸(Russo and Silver,1994)、中美洲的哥倫比亞(Shih et al.,1991),地幔楔近乎各向同性(δtMW=0.1~0.4 s);而在新西蘭的希庫朗伊俯沖帶,δtMW卻高達(dá)1.5 s(Marson-Pidgen et al.,1999)。
為了解釋俯沖帶的剪切波分裂性質(zhì)的復(fù)雜性和多樣性,學(xué)界已經(jīng)提出了數(shù)種成因模式,我們將對(duì)其中主要的模式做些評(píng)介。需要強(qiáng)調(diào)的是,目前尚沒有一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的成因模式能夠解釋世界上所有俯沖帶的地震波各向異性的特點(diǎn),研究還有待深入。
形成地震波各向異性的因素有很多,主要包括:(1)互層巖石的復(fù)合構(gòu)造,各成分層具不同的彈性力學(xué)性質(zhì),可以是各向同性也可以是各向異性的(Backus,1965;Ji et al.,2004;Ji,2008),垂直層理的波速總是較低,而平行層理的波速較高。(2)巖石中裂隙或微裂隙的定向排列,裂隙既可以被氣體、液體或熔體填充(Crampin and Booth,1985;Kendall,1994;Wang and Ji,2009),在垂直定向裂隙面的方向上波速較低,而在平行定向裂隙面的方向上波速較高;(3)各向異性礦物的晶格優(yōu)選定向(LPO),上地幔的各向異性一般認(rèn)為是由其主要造巖礦物橄欖石和輝石的 LPO所致(Hess,1964;Nicolas and Christensen,1987;Ji et al.,1994;Mainprice,2007)。橄欖石在上地幔中含量最多,其單晶體的地震波速各向異性較大(圖3),P波的各向異性系數(shù)高達(dá)22.9%,最大Vp(10.0 km/s)平行于[100]方向,最小Vp(7.7 km/s)平行于[010]方向,在[001]方向上Vp=8.4 km/s(Ji et al.,2002)。橄欖石的最大剪切波分裂達(dá)1.0 km/s,出現(xiàn)在[101]方向上,而在[100]方向上卻不發(fā)生剪切波分裂。目前,一般都是利用橄欖石的LPO解釋上地幔的各向異性和剪切波分裂的數(shù)據(jù),并且認(rèn)為LPO是橄欖石在上地幔條件下發(fā)生位錯(cuò)蠕變的產(chǎn)物,因?yàn)閿U(kuò)散蠕變和晶界滑移主導(dǎo)的超塑性變形基本上不能形成LPO(Karato and Wu,1993)。但只要條件適當(dāng),位錯(cuò)蠕變既可發(fā)生在巖石圈地幔(Ji et al.,1994;Silver,1996;Savage,1999),亦可在軟流圈地幔(Vinnik et al.,1992)。后者主要反映現(xiàn)代板塊運(yùn)動(dòng),而前者主要反映地史上最后一次最強(qiáng)烈的構(gòu)造變形,所形成的LPO“凍存”于較剛性的巖石圈地幔。在位錯(cuò)蠕變場內(nèi),有限應(yīng)變愈大,形成的橄欖石的LPO愈強(qiáng),地震波速各向異性和剪切波分裂亦就愈大。LPO強(qiáng)度隨應(yīng)變的增加不可能是無限制的,當(dāng)有限應(yīng)變達(dá)到或超過某一臨界值(例如,γ=4~5),LPO的強(qiáng)度就可能達(dá)到飽和狀態(tài),不再隨著應(yīng)變?cè)黾佣黾印?/p>
圖3 橄欖石單晶體的地震波速分布特征。(a)橄欖石單晶體主要晶格方向上的Vp、Vs1和Vs2的值(單位為km/s,Vp>Vs1>Vs2)。(b-e)分別為橄欖石單晶體中Vp、Vs1、Vs2和δVs(=Vs1-Vs2)的等值線分布圖(單位為km/s),下半球赤平投影;a,b和c分別表示橄欖石單晶體的三個(gè)晶軸。Fig.3 Seismic velocities of olivine single crystal.(a)Vp,Vs1and Vs2values in main crystallographic directions(in km/s,Vp>Vs1>Vs2).(b-e)Vp,Vs1,Vs2and δVs(=Vs1-Vs2)are shown in equal area stereographic projection with respect to the olivine crystallographic axes of a,b,and c.
圖4 由地幔楔中二維拐角流和板下平行海溝的三維地幔流所形成的剪切波分裂特征。無論在地幔楔還是板下地幔中,橄欖石皆發(fā)育A型組構(gòu)。Fig.4 Shear wave splitting patterns produced by 2D corner flow in the mantle wedge and 3D trenchparallel flow in the subslab mantle when olivine develops A-type fabrics.
自然變形和實(shí)驗(yàn)變形形成的最常見的橄欖石組構(gòu)就是其(010)面和[100]方向分別優(yōu)勢集中到剪切面(C面)和剪切方向。隨著有限剪切應(yīng)變的增加,剪切面和剪切方向與最大擠壓面(即面理或有限應(yīng)變橢球的XY面)和最大拉伸方向(即有限應(yīng)變橢球的X軸)之間的夾角逐漸減小。俯沖板塊與地幔楔之間的流變學(xué)耦合(Rheological coupling)常在地幔楔中形成二維拐角流(圖4),橄欖石發(fā)生位錯(cuò)蠕變,使其(010)面和[100]方向分別平行于地幔流的流面和流線。該模式預(yù)測,地幔楔的φMW方向平行俯沖板塊的絕對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)方向,即垂直或高角度斜交于海溝的走向;δtMW的變化應(yīng)主要取決于板塊的運(yùn)動(dòng)速度和俯沖角度的大小。板塊的運(yùn)動(dòng)速度越大,拐角流的規(guī)模就越大,應(yīng)變也就越大,LPO的強(qiáng)度也應(yīng)更大。對(duì)于俯沖角度幾乎保持恒定的同一地區(qū)來說,δtMW應(yīng)該比較均一,變化范圍不應(yīng)太大(McKenzie, 1979;Ribe,1989;Fischer et al.,2000),這與一些弧后地區(qū)的剪切波分裂的資料吻合,如湯加-克馬德克俯沖帶的西部(Fischer and Wiens,1996)和伊豆-小笠原的弧后地區(qū)(Fouch and Fischer,1996)。從理論上說,靠近海溝即接近地幔楔的楔角頂部(圖4),地幔可能會(huì)出現(xiàn)滯流,形成的LPO強(qiáng)度也就弱,因?yàn)槟抢锏膽?yīng)變量并不大,甚至?xí)霈F(xiàn)平行海溝的側(cè)向流動(dòng),使得φMW平行于海溝,形成較為復(fù)雜的LPO樣式及其隨空間位置的變化,導(dǎo)致φMW和δtMW數(shù)據(jù)的離散。
Buttles and Olson(1998)對(duì)拐角流進(jìn)行了簡易的物理模擬實(shí)驗(yàn),說明板塊俯沖角度對(duì)地幔楔內(nèi)礦物的LPO強(qiáng)度有著較為重要的影響。Fischer et al.(2000)做過一些數(shù)值模擬實(shí)驗(yàn),其結(jié)果表明由拐角流所形成的橄欖石和斜方輝石的LPO樣式可以解釋湯加俯沖帶之上地幔楔的剪切波分裂的特征。然而,二維拐角流模型目前尚無法解釋某些地區(qū)地幔楔φMW平行于海溝的特征,甚至對(duì)φMW垂直于海溝的地幔楔的解釋也仍需進(jìn)一步完善。此外,二維拐角流模式預(yù)言的δtMW與板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)速度呈正相關(guān),這與實(shí)際觀測數(shù)據(jù)的統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果尚不吻合(Long and Silver,2008)。
Russo and Silver(1994)首次在剪切波分裂的解釋中注意到板塊后退(Slab rollback)和海溝遷移(Trench migration)的影響(圖5),認(rèn)為它們是引發(fā)平行海溝的地幔流(圖4)、形成南美洲平行于海溝走向的φSW的主要因素。對(duì)此,Buttles and Olson(1998)還進(jìn)行了物理模擬實(shí)驗(yàn),實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果證明俯沖板塊后退導(dǎo)致的平行海溝的地幔流足以形成所觀察到的平行海溝的φSW,他們預(yù)言地震波速各向異性的強(qiáng)度與海溝的總遷移量有關(guān)。其他學(xué)者也對(duì)平行海溝的三維地幔流開展了一系列物理模擬(Kincaid and Griffiths,2003;Funiciello et al.,2006)和數(shù)值模擬(Piromallo et al.,2006;Stegman et al.,2006;Schellart et al.,2007;Becker and Faccenna,2009)。最近,Long and Silver(2008,2009)又對(duì)海溝或俯沖板塊遷移引發(fā)的平行于海溝的地幔流的概念做了進(jìn)一步的發(fā)展和完善。當(dāng)大洋板塊的俯沖角度由緩變陡(圖5a),位于大洋一側(cè)的板下地幔必然受到俯沖板塊的擠壓,導(dǎo)致平行海溝的塑性流動(dòng),形成橄欖石[100]方向平行于海溝的強(qiáng)烈的LPO,其結(jié)果導(dǎo)致φSW平行于海溝走向。大洋板塊俯沖角度的由緩變陡可能是一種較為普遍的地質(zhì)現(xiàn)象(Hsui et al.,1990;Houseman and Gubbins,1997),俯沖洋殼(玄武巖和輝長巖)先轉(zhuǎn)變成密度大的榴輝巖然后再轉(zhuǎn)變成密度更大的石榴子石巖(Ringwood,1991;Ji and Zhao,1994);在地幔轉(zhuǎn)換帶(Transition zone)內(nèi),橄欖石也會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)變成密度更大的尖晶石(γ相),俯沖的大洋板塊在重力作用下必然要發(fā)生由緩變陡的旋轉(zhuǎn);另一種地質(zhì)作用也可以導(dǎo)致平行海溝的地幔流,即海溝遷移。若俯沖板塊后退,則遷移的板塊擠壓著板下地幔(圖5b),導(dǎo)致φSW平行于海溝走向(圖4)。若俯沖板塊前進(jìn),則遷移的俯沖板塊擠壓著地幔楔(圖5c),導(dǎo)致φMW平行于海溝走向。Long and Silver(2008,2009)分析了世界上15個(gè)俯沖帶的δtSW與板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)速率、海溝遷移速率、俯沖板塊年齡及其傾角、地震最大深度等構(gòu)造參數(shù)的相關(guān)性,他們發(fā)現(xiàn)只有海溝遷移速率(Heurt and Lallemand,2005)與δtSW之間具有較好的線性關(guān)系(R=0.72)。在海溝遷移速率很小或幾乎為零的阿留申群島,δtSW也很小或近乎為零,即各向同性。但在湯加-克馬德克地區(qū),海溝遷移速率高達(dá)5 cm/a,δtSW的平均值為 1.8 s,最大值高達(dá) 2.4 s(圖6a)。眾所周知,剪切快慢波之間的延遲時(shí)間與其穿越的各向異性介質(zhì)的厚度及該介質(zhì)各向異性的強(qiáng)度成正比。遷移速率快的板塊俯沖系統(tǒng)可以引發(fā)更大規(guī)模的平行海溝的地幔流,從而在較大范圍內(nèi)產(chǎn)生高強(qiáng)度的上地幔礦物的晶格優(yōu)勢定向,這就解釋了δtSW與俯沖板塊遷移速率呈正相關(guān)的原因。但是,Long and Silver(2008,2009)并沒有考慮到海溝遷移方向?qū)Φ蒯A鞯目赡苡绊?。統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果(Gripp and Gordon,2002;Funiciello et al.,2008)顯示,占全球俯沖帶總長度53%的海溝作前進(jìn)運(yùn)動(dòng),其余47%的海溝作后退運(yùn)動(dòng)。在海溝后退過程中(如南美洲西海岸的俯沖帶,中美洲西海岸的俯沖帶以及西太平洋的琉球俯沖帶等),俯沖板塊擠壓著板下地幔,主要影響著俯沖帶外側(cè)的φSW和δtSW。但是,在海溝前進(jìn)過程中(如伊豆-小笠原-馬里亞納俯沖帶、克馬德克俯沖帶、蘇門答臘俯沖帶等),俯沖板塊擠壓著地幔楔,主要影響著俯沖帶內(nèi)側(cè)的φMW和δtMW,而對(duì)φSW和δtSW理應(yīng)沒有什么直接影響。在Long and Silver(2008,2009)的統(tǒng)計(jì)圖(圖6a)上,并沒有考慮到海溝遷移方向的影響,故其統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果及其地質(zhì)意義尚有待于進(jìn)一步明確。
圖5 俯沖板塊旋轉(zhuǎn)(a)、后退(b)和前進(jìn)(c)的模式示意圖。虛線和實(shí)線分別表示變化前后俯沖板塊的位置,箭頭表示板塊的運(yùn)動(dòng)方向Fig.5 Schematic diagrams of rotating(a),retreating(b)and advancing(c)slabs.Dashed and solid lines indicate slab locations before and after the change,respectively.Arrows indicate the motions of the trench and the subducting slab
圖6 (a)俯沖板塊和板下地幔的剪切波延遲時(shí)間(δtSW)隨海溝遷移速率(Vt)的變化。(b)地幔楔的剪切波延遲時(shí)間(δtMW)與Vt/Vc的關(guān)系,Vt/Vc表示海溝遷移速率與板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)速率的比值。紅色和藍(lán)色分別表示前進(jìn)的和后退的海溝,不同的符號(hào)代表不同的俯沖帶。建圖數(shù)據(jù)來自Long and Silver(2008)Fig.6 (a)Average subwedge delay time(δtSW)versus trench migration velocity(Vt).(b)Average mantle wedge delay time(δtMW)versus Vt/Vc.Vt/Vcrepresents trench migration velocity normalized by total convergence velocity.Retreating and advancing trenches are represented by blue diamonds and red squares,respectively(Data from Long and Silver,2008)
需要強(qiáng)調(diào)的是,當(dāng)俯沖板塊向前遷移時(shí),在地幔楔內(nèi)會(huì)同時(shí)存在垂直于海溝的二維拐角流和平行于海溝的三維地幔流(圖4),所以,地幔楔的剪切波分裂樣式應(yīng)是上述兩種作用彼此競爭的結(jié)果(Long and Silver,2008,2009)。如果板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)速率Vc和海溝遷移速率Vt分別影響著垂直于海溝的拐角流和平行于海溝的地幔流的強(qiáng)度和規(guī)模,那么當(dāng)Vt/Vc比值較小時(shí)(<~0.2),地幔楔內(nèi)則以拐角流為主,φMW會(huì)垂直于海溝,δtMW會(huì)隨Vt/Vc比值減小而增大(圖6b)。相反,如果海溝遷移占主導(dǎo)(即Vt/Vc比值大于~0.6),則δtMW與海溝遷移速率呈正相關(guān),即δtMW隨Vt/Vc比值增大而增大(圖6b)。介于上述兩種極端情況之間的其他俯沖系統(tǒng),垂直于海溝的拐角流和平行于海溝的地幔流兩種作用勢均力敵,所形成的各向異性彼此消減,故觀察到的δtMW值就小(圖 6b)。雖然 Long and Silver(2008,2009)的理論模式能較為合理地解釋地幔楔的δtMW資料,卻不能圓滿地解釋每一條俯沖帶的φMW數(shù)據(jù)。例如,在伊豆-小笠原俯沖帶,海溝遷移速率約為 5 cm/a,Vt/Vc比值約為1,Long and Silver(2008,2009)把該俯沖帶歸入海溝遷移主導(dǎo)的類型,即俯沖板塊之上的地幔楔的φMW平行于海溝,然而實(shí)際觀察到的卻是垂直海溝。阿留申俯沖帶的海溝幾乎靜止不動(dòng),既不前進(jìn)也不后退,Long and Silver(2008,2009)將之劃歸二維拐角流主導(dǎo)的類型,然而,實(shí)際觀察的φMW卻是平行海溝的(圖2)。此外,世界上大多數(shù)俯沖帶的海溝遷移速度Vt總比板塊俯沖速度Vc要小得多,即Vt/Vc<<1,理應(yīng)在大多數(shù)情況下二維拐角流強(qiáng)于三維地幔流,即垂直于海溝的φMW要比平行于海溝的φMW更為常見,這個(gè)問題尚有待進(jìn)一步探討。
另外,Long and Silver(2008,2009)提出的三維地幔流的可行性的三個(gè)必要條件皆有疑問。第一個(gè)條件是,俯沖板塊與其板下地幔之間不發(fā)生流變學(xué)耦合,這樣大洋板塊在俯沖過程中才不會(huì)拖曳著板下地幔向著俯沖方向一起流動(dòng),板下地幔才能作平行于海溝的側(cè)向流動(dòng)。為了滿足上述條件,Morgan et al.(2007)假設(shè)在俯沖板塊與板下地幔之間存在著一個(gè)流變強(qiáng)度極低的薄層(10~30 km),它可能是高溫的、含水量高的軟流圈的物質(zhì),被強(qiáng)拖到俯沖板塊與板下地幔之間,該假說還有待證實(shí)。三維地幔流可行性的第二個(gè)條件要求在地幔轉(zhuǎn)變帶深度(410 km)或上下地幔邊界(660 km)位置存在高強(qiáng)度的力學(xué)阻隔層(例如石榴子石巖層,Ringwood,1991),低溫高強(qiáng)度的俯沖板塊能夠通過而高溫低強(qiáng)度的板下地幔流卻不能通過,這樣,地幔流就可以在俯沖板塊遷移的驅(qū)趕下作平行于海溝的側(cè)向水平流動(dòng)。目前,震源和地震波層析數(shù)據(jù)已證實(shí)俯沖板塊可以穿越轉(zhuǎn)變帶和660 km不連續(xù)面并插入下地幔(van de Hilst et al.,1997;Li et al.,2008)。但是,上地幔的板下地幔流能否進(jìn)入下地幔以及轉(zhuǎn)變帶內(nèi)地幔流的強(qiáng)度與規(guī)模,目前尚無定論,爭議依然很大(Tackley,2008)。三維地幔流可行性的第三個(gè)條件要求,在垂直俯沖帶方向的遠(yuǎn)處存在某種強(qiáng)大的力量,驅(qū)趕著熱的、流變強(qiáng)度低的板下地幔物質(zhì)向著俯沖帶方向運(yùn)動(dòng),靠近俯沖板塊時(shí),由于冷的高強(qiáng)度的俯沖板塊的阻擋,地幔流被迫作平行于海溝的側(cè)向水平流動(dòng)(Buttles and Olsen,1998;Kincaid and Griffiths,2003)。上述神秘的力量或許就是熱-浮力驅(qū)動(dòng)的上升地幔流或地幔柱。據(jù)此推理,靠近洋中脊的南美洲西海岸的板下地幔的δtSW應(yīng)該大于遠(yuǎn)離洋中脊的湯加-克馬德克-新西蘭俯沖帶的板下地幔的δtSW,然而,事實(shí)并非如此,可見上述的第三個(gè)條件并非必要條件。
傳統(tǒng)的實(shí)驗(yàn)資料(Carter and Ave Lallemant,1970)表明,在實(shí)驗(yàn)室應(yīng)變速率條件下,橄欖石的位錯(cuò)滑移系隨溫度升高逐漸由(100)[001]過渡到{110}[001],然后再變?yōu)閧0kl}[100],最后到(010)[100](圖7a),這4個(gè)滑移系之間相互轉(zhuǎn)變的臨界溫度隨圍壓增加而逐漸減小。在正常的上地幔溫壓條件下,最流行的橄欖石滑移系應(yīng)該是(010)[100],這與世界上許多地方玄武巖或金伯利巖中地幔包體的橄欖石組構(gòu)是一致的(Nicolas and Christensen,1987;Mainprice and Silver,1993;Ji et al.,1994,1996;Saruwatari et al.,2001)。但是,Carter and Ave Lallemant(1970)的實(shí)驗(yàn)是在固體圍壓介質(zhì)的Griggs裝置上完成的,由于當(dāng)時(shí)技術(shù)條件的局限性,差應(yīng)力的測量精度不夠,巖石試樣中甚至還可能存在較大的溫度不均勻性,同時(shí)水的影響亦沒有得到有效地控制。
近年來,美國耶魯大學(xué)唐戶俊一郎(Shun-ichiro Karato)教授領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的研究組(Jung and Karato,2001;Karato,2002;Katayama et al.,2004;Skemer et al.,2006;Jung et al.,2006)針對(duì)水對(duì)橄欖石LPO類型的影響做了一系列的實(shí)驗(yàn)探討(圖7b),他們認(rèn)為,在正常差應(yīng)力(<350~400 MPa)作用下,隨著水含量的增加,橄欖石的位錯(cuò)滑移系從(010)[100]先轉(zhuǎn)變成(001)[100],然后再轉(zhuǎn)變到(100)[001]。但在高差應(yīng)力(>350~400 MPa)作用下,橄欖石在低水含量和中-高水含量的情況下分別出現(xiàn){0kl}[100]和(010)[001]滑移系。由滑移系(010)[100]、(010)[001]、(100)[001]、{0kl}[100]、(001)[100]和{110}[001]位錯(cuò)蠕變形成的 LPO 分別稱之為A型、B型、C型、D型、E型和F型組構(gòu)(圖7c)。
圖7 在不同溫度、壓力、差應(yīng)力和水含量條件下,橄欖石的6個(gè)主要滑移系(a和b)所形成的6種主要類型的組構(gòu)(c)。(a)建圖數(shù)據(jù)取自Carter and Ave Lallemant(1970),應(yīng)變速率為7.8×10-5s-1;(b)建圖數(shù)據(jù)取自Jung and Karato(2001)和 Jung et al.(2006),變形溫度1200~1300 ℃,應(yīng)變速率為 5.6×10-6~9.5×10-4s-1Fig.7 (a).Deformation fabrics of olivine at stain rate~7.8 ×10-5s-1as a function of temperature and pressure(Data from Carter and Ave Lallemant,1970).(b).Deformation fabrics of olivine at 1200~1300 ℃ and a stain rate of 5.6×10-6~9.5 ×10-4s-1as a function of differential stress and water content(Data from Jung and Karato,2001 and Jung et al.,2006).(c).Typical pole figures of A,B,C,D,E and F-type LPOs in(a)and(b).Pole figures are presented in equal area stereographic projection with respect to three principal axes(X,Y,and Z)of the finite strain ellipsoid
然而,學(xué)界對(duì)唐戶俊一郎等的結(jié)論目前尚存很大的爭議,主要因?yàn)樗麄兊膶?shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果尚未被其他實(shí)驗(yàn)室重復(fù)驗(yàn)證(Li et al.,2003a,b;Couvy et al.,2004;Li et al.,2004;Raterron et al.,2004,2007;Ji et al.,2007)。例如,美國紐約大學(xué)石溪分校的礦物物理研究所和法國里爾大學(xué)固體結(jié)構(gòu)與性質(zhì)實(shí)驗(yàn)室的研究人員更強(qiáng)調(diào)圍壓對(duì)橄欖石位錯(cuò)滑移系轉(zhuǎn)變的重要性。Couvy et al.(2004)報(bào)道,在圍壓11 GPa(對(duì)應(yīng)于約330 km的深度)、溫度1400℃和簡單剪切條件下,橄欖石的主要滑移系為{110}[001],形成F型組構(gòu)。在溫度1100~1400℃和無水條件下,Raterron et al.(2007)發(fā)現(xiàn)隨著圍壓的增加(2.1~7.5 GPa)橄欖石最容易滑移的晶系由(010)[100](A型組構(gòu))轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)?010)[001](B型組構(gòu))。如果Raterron et al.(2007)的實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果可以外延到更深的上地幔,那么在200~400 km深度范圍內(nèi)所流行的就可能是B型組構(gòu)而不是A型組構(gòu)。后來,Jung et al.(2009)在溫度1270~1300℃、圍壓3.1~3.6 GPa、差應(yīng)力 150~390 MPa,應(yīng)變率2×10-5~6×10-5的條件下簡單剪切(γ=3~6)了干的橄欖石多晶結(jié)合體,同樣也獲得了B型組構(gòu),這就說明高水含量并不是形成橄欖石B型組構(gòu)的唯一條件。如果上述實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果可外延到自然界,那么B型組構(gòu)在80~100 km深度以下的地幔就可能存在了。所以,影響橄欖石組構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)變的因素至少應(yīng)該有4個(gè):溫度、差應(yīng)力、水含量和圍壓。但是,圖7c所示的6種類型組構(gòu)之間相互轉(zhuǎn)變的準(zhǔn)確的邊界條件,迄今尚不甚明確,仍需進(jìn)一步研究。
由于橄欖石的A型、D型和E型組構(gòu)都是由平行于[100]方向的位錯(cuò)滑移造成的,該方向是橄欖石晶體中波速最大的方向(圖3)。所以,這三種類型中任一種LPO總會(huì)使得剪切快波的偏振方向平行于地幔的流動(dòng)方向。但是,若在地幔流動(dòng)過程中,橄欖石作{110}[001]滑移,[001](中間波速)的最大集密平行于拉張線理(X),而[100](最大波速)和[010](最小波速)方向皆形成垂直于拉張線理的環(huán)帶,構(gòu)成F型組構(gòu),當(dāng)剪切波在垂直于地幔流動(dòng)面(XY面)方向上傳播時(shí)幾乎不發(fā)生分裂。若在地幔的塑性流動(dòng)過程中,橄欖石作(100)[001]滑移,[001](中間波速)的最大集密平行于拉張線理,[100](最大波速)方向垂直于面理,[010](最小波速)方向平行于面理且垂直于拉張線理,構(gòu)成C型組構(gòu),當(dāng)剪切波在地幔流動(dòng)面的垂直方向上傳播時(shí),快波的偏振方向依然平行于地幔流方向,但是此時(shí)快慢波之間的延遲時(shí)間就不如同等條件下A型組構(gòu)形成的那么大。
橄欖石的B型組構(gòu)(圖7)造成的地震波各向異性的樣式和其他類型組構(gòu)的明顯不同,有必要在此作重點(diǎn)討論。B型組構(gòu)是由(010)[001]位錯(cuò)滑移造成的,[001](中間波速)方向的最大密集平行于拉張線理,[010](最小波速)方向垂直于面理,[100](最大波速)方向平行于面理且垂直于拉張線理。如果地幔作近乎水平的流動(dòng),則最小波速近乎垂直,而在水平面上最大波速則垂直于地幔流動(dòng)方向。當(dāng)剪切波在地幔流動(dòng)面的垂直方向上傳播時(shí),快波的偏振方向就會(huì)垂直于而不是平行于地幔流的方向,這和所有其他類型橄欖石組構(gòu)造成的地震波各向異性是截然不同的。
目前最關(guān)鍵的問題是A型與B型組構(gòu)之間準(zhǔn)確的轉(zhuǎn)變條件,迄今尚不清楚。如果B型組構(gòu)形成的必要條件是高水含量(>200×10-6H/Si)和高差應(yīng)力(>320 MPa,Jung and Karato,2001;Jung et al.,2006;Karato et al.,2008),那么我們可進(jìn)行如下探討。在地幔巖的部分熔融過程中,水會(huì)優(yōu)先進(jìn)入熔體(Karato,1986;Hirth and Kohlstdt,1996;嵇少丞等,2008),水在熔體和橄欖石之間的分配系數(shù)是 104∶1(Grant et al.,2007)。所以,部分熔融程度越高,其難熔的殘余組分如橄欖石就愈“干燥”,也就愈不容易形成B型組構(gòu)。大洋巖石圈地幔相對(duì)于其下的軟流圈地幔經(jīng)過了更高程度的部分熔融,洋中脊就是地幔發(fā)生部分熔融的場所,大洋巖石圈地??梢钥闯墒怯山?jīng)過較高程度部分熔融之后的殘余組分(方輝橄欖巖和純橄巖)構(gòu)成的,其中橄欖石的含水量甚少,所以,B型組構(gòu)在大洋巖石圈地幔中是不可能大規(guī)模存在的。在島弧之下,地幔楔也發(fā)生了較為強(qiáng)烈的部分熔融,水優(yōu)先進(jìn)入玄武巖熔體并侵入地殼或噴發(fā)到地表,巖漿源區(qū)的方輝橄欖巖中的橄欖石就相對(duì)變干,所以也不會(huì)形成B型組構(gòu)。有的學(xué)者認(rèn)為最有可能形成B型組構(gòu)的地區(qū)是弧前地幔楔(Katayama and Karato,2006;Kneller et al.,2005,2007,2008),因?yàn)橛筛_板塊脫水作用釋放出來的水?dāng)U散進(jìn)入地幔楔內(nèi)的橄欖石晶體。然而,這些水也能與弧前地幔楔中的橄欖巖發(fā)生水化反應(yīng)生成蛇紋石,蛇紋石的流變強(qiáng)度比橄欖石的低得多(圖8,Brodie and Rutter,1987;Escartin et al.,2001;Hilairet et al.,2007;Chenak and Hirth,2010),應(yīng)變將發(fā)生局部化并優(yōu)先集中到蛇紋石之中。所以,在蛇紋石化橄欖巖中差應(yīng)力是不可能很高的,那么需要在很高差應(yīng)力條件下才能形成的橄欖石的B型組構(gòu)也不可能出現(xiàn)在蛇紋石化的弧前地幔楔中。
圖8 橄欖石和蛇紋石流變強(qiáng)度的比較及其蛇紋石化的作用。曲線邊上的數(shù)字表示應(yīng)變速率。建圖數(shù)據(jù)取自Brodie and Rutter(1987)Fig.8 Comparison of flow strengths between olivine and serpentine.Strain rate(in s-1)is indicated for each curve.Dashed curve shows the effect of serpentinization.(Data from Brodie and Rutter,1987)
如果由于某些尚不為人知的原因,橄欖石的B型組構(gòu)確實(shí)流行于弧前地幔楔中(Kneller et al.,2005,2007,2008;Mizukami et al.,2004;Skemer et al.,2006;Michibayashi et al.,2007;Tasaka et al.,2008),在二維拐角流的作用下,B型組構(gòu)導(dǎo)致橄欖石的[100]方向平行于海溝,(010)面平行于地幔流動(dòng)面,φMW也就平行于海溝,那么也就無需利用平行海溝的地幔流的假說來解釋弧前地幔楔的剪切波分裂的資料。如果上述觀點(diǎn)是正確的,以島弧為界的地幔楔就可分為弧前地幔楔和弧后地幔楔,弧前地幔楔和弧后地幔楔分別以B型和A型組構(gòu)為特征,造成弧前和弧后的φMW分別平行和垂直于海溝(圖9),這樣的分布在日本北海道和本州可以見到(Nakajima and Hasegawa,2004;Huang et al.,2011)。然而,在琉球俯沖帶和湯加俯沖帶的弧前地區(qū),φMW皆是平行海溝的,但是,在琉球弧后大部分地區(qū),φMW也是平行于海溝的(Long and van der Hilst,2006),而湯加弧后地區(qū)(Lau盆地)的φMW既不垂直海溝也不平行海溝,而是斜交于海溝(Smith et al.,2001)。在馬里亞納俯沖帶(Pozgay et al.,2007)和中美洲西海岸的哥斯達(dá)黎加(Costa Rica)和尼加拉瓜(Nicaragua)俯沖帶(Abt et al.,2009;Hoernle et al.,2008)的弧后地區(qū)也發(fā)現(xiàn)有平行于海溝的φMW,甚至在勘察加南部(Levin et al.,2004)和北美洲阿拉斯加地區(qū)(Christensen et al.,2010),φMW在弧前垂直于海溝,在弧后卻是平行海溝的,這些復(fù)雜的現(xiàn)象尚難以用橄欖石的B型和A型組構(gòu)的轉(zhuǎn)變來解釋。
圖9 地幔楔中橄欖石的弧前B型組構(gòu)和弧后A型組構(gòu)對(duì)剪切波分裂的影響Fig.9 Shear wave splitting patterns resulted from olivine B-type fabrics beneath the forearc and A-type fabrics beneath the backarc
作為層狀硅酸鹽礦物的蛇紋石是超基性地幔巖的水化產(chǎn)物,它包括三個(gè)主要的同質(zhì)多象變體,分別為利蛇紋石[Lizardite,Mg3Si2O5(OH)4]、纖蛇紋石[Chrysotile,Mg3Si2O5(OH)4)]和葉蛇紋石[Antigorite,Mg48Si34O85(OH)62]。蛇紋石作為含水礦物,影響其穩(wěn)定性的主要因素是溫度,其次才是壓力(圖10)。利蛇紋石和纖蛇紋石通常在<350℃的溫度下穩(wěn)定存在,稱之為低溫蛇紋石。只有葉蛇紋石能在 >350℃的溫度下穩(wěn)定存在(Evans,1977),葉蛇紋石轉(zhuǎn)變成橄欖石+斜方輝石+水的邊界隨圍壓增加而減小:在2.0 GPa時(shí)是~720℃;在3.0 GPa時(shí)是~690 ℃;5.0 GPa時(shí)是~620 ℃(Ulmer and Trommsdorff,1995)。需要強(qiáng)調(diào)的是,在富鋁、富鉻和富水環(huán)境中上述反應(yīng)邊界會(huì)向高溫方向遷移(Padron-Navarta et al.,2010)。在富水的地幔楔中,葉蛇紋石在溫度高達(dá)800~850℃時(shí)可能依然穩(wěn)定。所以,葉蛇紋石應(yīng)是俯沖板塊地幔內(nèi)主要的蛇紋石礦物。
鎂橄欖石 (Mg2SiO4)、鐵鎂橄欖石[(Fe,Mg)2SiO4]、頑 輝 石 (MgSiO3)和 滑 石[Mg3Si4O10(OH)2]的水化反應(yīng)可以有下列形式:
圖10 利蛇紋石和葉蛇紋石的穩(wěn)定場圖。礦物簡寫:Atg葉蛇紋石,Liz利蛇紋石,Ol橄欖石,Brc水鎂石,Tlc滑石,Opx斜方輝石。相邊界條件取自Ulmer and Trommsdorff(1995)和Evans(2004)Fig.10 Diagram showing the stability fields of lizardite and antigorite.Mineral abbreviations:Atg antigorite,Liz lizardite,Ol olivine,Brc brucite,Tlc talc,Opx orthopyroxene.Reaction boundaries are given by Ulmer and Trommsdorff(1995)and Evans(2004)
(1)鎂橄欖石+頑輝石+水→葉蛇紋石
14Mg2SiO4+20MgSiO3+31H2O→Mg48Si34O85(OH)62
(2)鎂橄欖石+滑石+水→蛇紋石
6Mg2SiO4+Mg3Si4O10(OH)2+9H2O→5Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
或18Mg2SiO4+4Mg3Si4O10(OH)2+27H2O→Mg48Si34O85(OH)62
(3)鎂橄欖石+二氧化硅+水→低溫蛇紋石
3Mg2SiO4+SiO2+4H2O→2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
(4)鎂橄欖石+水→蛇紋石+水鎂石
2Mg2SiO4+3H2O→Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+Mg(OH)2
或34Mg2SiO4+51H2O→Mg48Si34O85(OH)62+20Mg(OH)2
(5)頑輝石+水→葉蛇紋石+滑石
90MgSiO3+45H2O→Mg48Si34O85(OH)62+14Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
(6)鐵鎂橄欖石+水+二氧化碳→低溫蛇紋石+磁鐵礦+甲烷
(Fe,Mg)2SiO4+H2O+CO2→Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+Fe3O4+CH4
(7)鐵鎂橄欖石+水+二氧化碳→低溫蛇紋石+磁鐵礦+菱鎂礦+二氧化硅
(Fe,Mg)2SiO4+H2O+CO2→Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+Fe3O4+MgCO3+SiO2
(8)鎂橄欖石+水+二氧化碳→滑石+菱鎂礦
4Mg2SiO4+H2O+5CO2→Mg3Si4O10(OH)2+5MgCO3
(9)滑石+水→低溫蛇紋石+二氧化硅
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2+H2O→Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+2SiO2
(10)滑石+菱鎂礦+水→低溫蛇紋石+二氧化碳
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2+3MgCO3+3H2O→2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+3CO2
低溫的利蛇紋石和纖蛇紋石向高溫葉蛇紋石轉(zhuǎn)變的反應(yīng)式如下:
(11)低溫蛇紋石→葉蛇紋石+水鎂石
17Mg3Si2O5(OH)4→Mg48Si34O85(OH)62+3Mg(OH)2
(12)低溫蛇紋石+二氧化硅→葉蛇紋石+水
16Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+2SiO2→Mg48Si34O85(OH)62+H2O
(13)低溫蛇紋石→葉蛇紋石+鎂橄欖石+水
20Mg3Si2O5(OH)4→Mg48Si34O85(OH)62+6Mg2SiO4+9H2O
反應(yīng)式(1~2)和(11)的溫壓條件見圖10,其他反應(yīng)式的溫壓條件尚有待進(jìn)一步的實(shí)驗(yàn)確定。蛇紋石的脫水反應(yīng)是式(1~10)水化反應(yīng)的逆反應(yīng)。
近年來蛇紋巖對(duì)于俯沖帶動(dòng)力學(xué)的意義受到了越來越多的關(guān)注,主要原因如下:(1)蛇紋巖具有很特別的物理性質(zhì),例如低的P和S波速(圖11),高的地震波各向異性和剪切波分裂(圖12,表1),以及高的Vp/Vs比值或泊松比(Ji et al.,2002;Dewandel et al.,2003;Watanabe et al.,2007;Ji et al.,2009),利用這些特性就可研發(fā)出研究俯沖帶特性的地球物理方法(Bostock et al.,2002;Faccenda et al.,2008;Boudier et al.,2009;Katayama et al.,2009);(2)蛇紋石作為俯沖帶中最重要的水的載體(~13%,Schmidt and Poli,1998;Ulmer and Trommsdorff,1995),在深部高溫條件下通過脫水作用釋放出水,造成地幔楔的部分熔融,形成島弧的巖漿作用(Hyndman and Peacock,2003;Wada et al.,2008);(3)蛇紋巖具有極低的流變強(qiáng)度(圖8,Brodie and Rutter,1987;Escartin et al.,2001;Hilairet et al.,2007;Chenak and Hirth,2010)和較小的摩擦系數(shù)(Moore et al.,1996;Moore and Lockner,2007),所以俯沖板塊蛇紋石化的程度直接影響俯沖帶的熱產(chǎn)出、地震活動(dòng)性以及俯沖板塊與地幔楔之間的力學(xué)耦合,蛇紋石化程度高的區(qū)段以蠕滑為主,難以產(chǎn)生強(qiáng)震,熱產(chǎn)出也少,甚至影響俯沖板塊內(nèi)部的熱結(jié)(Hirauchi and Yamaguchi,2007)。
大洋板塊俯沖到一定的深度,含水礦物(如蛇紋石、滑石、水鎂石)開始脫水,釋放出大量的含水流體,進(jìn)入地幔楔,一方面會(huì)造成地幔楔的部分熔融,形成島弧的巖漿作用,另一方面在地幔楔內(nèi)形成蛇紋石礦物,在深部主要是葉蛇紋石,但在弧前地幔楔的淺部,由于那里的溫度相對(duì)較低,利蛇紋石和纖蛇紋石也可能穩(wěn)定存在(Evans,1977,2004)。已有的地質(zhì)(如在伊豆-小笠原-馬里亞納群島出現(xiàn)大量的蛇紋石泥火山)和地球物理(如低的地震波速和高的Vp/Vs比值)數(shù)據(jù)表明,弧前地幔楔的蛇紋石化是一個(gè)全球性的普遍現(xiàn)象。例如,北美洲西海岸的卡斯卡迪亞(Bostock et al.,2002;Brocher et al.,2003)、日本西南部(Kamiya and Kobayashi,2000;Seno et al.,2001)、南美洲的安第斯山脈中部(Graeber and Asch,1999)和中美洲的哥斯達(dá)黎加(DeShon and Schwartz,2004)的弧前地幔楔均已發(fā)生了蛇紋巖化。
圖11 地幔巖的P波(a)和S波(b)速度隨蛇紋石化程度的增加而呈近線性地減小。波速測量的圍壓為600 MPa,N為樣品總數(shù)。地幔巖的主要礦物橄欖石、古銅輝石和透輝石及其主要水化礦物葉蛇紋石、纖蛇紋石、利蛇紋石、滑石、水鎂石和綠泥石的多晶集合體的波速也標(biāo)注到圖上,以便比較Fig.11 Vp(a)and Vs(b)as a function of serpentine content for mantle rocks.Seismic velocities were measured at 600 MPa,N indicates sample numbers.Velocities of main rock-forming minerals(olivine,bronzite,and dioposide)and hydrous minerals(antigorite,lizardite,chrysotile,talc,brucite,and chlorite)are also indicated for comparison
橄欖石單晶體的P和S波的各向異性分別為~23%和~20%(圖3,Kumazawa and Anderson,1969;Ji et al.,2002),而葉蛇紋石單晶體的各向異性比這大得多(圖12),其P和S波速的各向異性分別高達(dá)46%和66%(Bezacier et al.,2010)。加之,葉蛇紋石流變強(qiáng)度很小(圖8),極易發(fā)生塑性變形,形成強(qiáng)烈的LPO:(001)面和[100]方向分別平行于蛇紋巖的剪切面和剪切方向(Katayama et al.,2009;Hirauchi et al.,2010;Kern et al.,1997),在經(jīng)受強(qiáng)烈大變形的剪切帶(如俯沖板塊邊界層)內(nèi),上述的剪切面(即俯沖板塊邊界)和剪切方向(即板塊俯沖方向)分別近乎平行于變形巖石的面理和拉張線理。一般來說,由橄欖石的A型LPO形成的地震波各向異性僅為3%~5%,而且具有正交對(duì)稱性:最大、中間與最小P波速度分別平行于有限應(yīng)變橢球的三個(gè)主軸方向,即X(礦物拉張線理)、Y(平行于面理且垂直于線理)和Z方向(垂直面理)。而由蛇紋石LPO形成的各向異性總是很強(qiáng)(>10%),且具有軸對(duì)稱性:最小波速垂直于面理,但在面理面上波速近乎各向同性。所以,蛇紋石含量的增加總是增強(qiáng)變形蛇紋石化橄欖巖在平行和垂直于面理方向上地震波速的差別,即各向異性。只要蛇紋石的含量超過~20%,則變形蛇紋石化橄欖巖的地震波各向異性特征將由蛇紋石的LPO主導(dǎo),在面理上利用地震波速將無法區(qū)別X和Y方向。
圖12 葉蛇紋石單晶體中Vp、Vs1、Vs2和δVs(=Vs1-Vs2)的等值線分布圖(單位為km/s),下半球赤平投影;圖中a和b分別表示a和b晶軸,c*表示(001)的法線方向。葉蛇紋石單晶體的彈性系數(shù)由Bezacier et al.(2010)測定Fig.12 Seismic velocities of antigorite single crystal.Vp,Vs1,Vs2and δVs(=Vs1-Vs2)are shown in equal area stereographic projection with respect to the crystallographic orientations of a,b,and c*,where c*is perpendicular to(001)plane.Elasticity data of antigorite are from Bezacier et al.(2010)
表1 常溫常壓下葉蛇紋石單晶體的彈性模量(實(shí)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)來自 Bezacier et al.,2010)Table 1 Elastic constants(GPa)and properties of antigorite single-crystal at ambient conditions(Data from Bezacier et al.,2010)
Katayama et al.(2009)在圍壓 1.0 GPa 和溫度300~400℃的實(shí)驗(yàn)條件下簡單剪切了葉蛇紋石多晶集合體,在剪切應(yīng)變?chǔ)谩?.0時(shí)該蛇紋巖的剪切波各向異性(AVs)高達(dá)32%,這與自然變形的蛇紋巖的各向異性相當(dāng)(Kern et al.,1997;Ji et al.,2002;Christensen,2004;Wang et al.,2005;Watanabe et al.,2007)。由此可見,蛇紋石化必然會(huì)對(duì)俯沖帶及其地幔楔的地震波速各向異性大小與樣式影響很大,可惜以前的理論模式往往忽視了蛇紋石化的貢獻(xiàn)。
例如,在西太平洋的琉球島弧,剪切快慢波之間的延遲時(shí)間是1~2 s,若所觀察到的剪切波分裂全部是由橄欖石的優(yōu)選定向造成的(AVs=4.5%),那么各向異性層的厚度就需100~200 km,這些值在某些地方甚至要大于其下的地幔楔的厚度,這明顯是不可能的。若上述剪切波分裂是由蛇紋石的優(yōu)選定向造成的(AVs=32%),那么僅需10~20 km厚度的蛇紋巖就足夠了。總之,蛇紋石化程度越高,地幔楔的各向異性也就越大,島弧地區(qū)的剪切波分裂愈強(qiáng)。
地幔楔的蛇紋石化程度可能與俯沖板塊的年齡有關(guān)。年輕的俯沖板塊,內(nèi)部溫度梯度較高,會(huì)在弧前地區(qū)釋放出大量的鍵間水,那里地幔楔的蛇紋石化程度因此較高;相反,在古老的俯沖板塊內(nèi)部,溫度梯度較低,脫水反應(yīng)會(huì)發(fā)生在更深處,弧前地區(qū)地幔楔的蛇紋石化程度因此較低(Wada et al.,2008)。西太平洋的琉球俯沖帶屬于低齡高溫型,脫水反應(yīng)發(fā)生在~40 km的深度,弧前的地幔楔會(huì)發(fā)生廣泛的蛇紋石化作用,故剪切波的延遲時(shí)間較大(1~2 s)。日本東北部的俯沖帶屬于高齡低溫型,脫水反應(yīng)主要發(fā)生在100 km左右的深度,故弧前地幔楔的蛇紋石化程度很低,剪切波延遲時(shí)間僅 0.1~0.2 s。
蛇紋石化最強(qiáng)烈的部位很可能出現(xiàn)在俯沖板塊與地幔楔之間的接觸剪切帶內(nèi),并在那里形成蛇紋巖層(圖13a),由于其流變強(qiáng)度較兩側(cè)橄欖巖的低得多,逆沖剪切應(yīng)變會(huì)在該蛇紋巖層中高度集中,形成強(qiáng)烈的葉蛇紋石LPO:(001)面平行于地幔楔與俯沖板塊的接觸面,而[100]方向平行于俯沖方向,造成最大和最小的波速分別平行于和垂直于面理方向。由于剪切波分裂技術(shù)目前僅測定介質(zhì)中其傳播方向的垂直面(對(duì)應(yīng)于SKS和SKKS來說該面就是水平面)上的最大波速方向,所以無論φMW或δtMW都與俯沖角度有很大關(guān)系。如果俯沖帶陡傾[例如馬里亞納俯沖帶、湯加-克馬德克俯沖帶、斯科舍(Scotia)俯沖帶],則在俯沖板塊與地幔楔的接觸剪切帶內(nèi)的水平面上,最大與最小波速應(yīng)分別平行于和垂直于海溝的走向。相反,如果俯沖帶呈低角度(例如南美洲西海岸),則俯沖板塊與地幔楔之間的接觸剪切帶內(nèi)的蛇紋巖層也呈低角度,故對(duì)地表臺(tái)站測量到的剪切波分裂貢獻(xiàn)較少。
圖13 (a).由位于俯沖板塊與地幔楔之間的蛇紋巖剪切帶形成的剪切波分裂的特征。在剪切帶內(nèi),蛇紋石的(001)面平行于剪切面,而[100]方向平行于剪切方向;(b).充填于俯沖板塊張裂隙中的蛇紋石與剪切快波偏振方向的關(guān)系。蛇紋石的(001)面平行于張裂隙壁;在俯沖板塊內(nèi)橄欖石發(fā)育A型組構(gòu),即(010)面平行于俯沖板塊,而[100]方向平行于板塊俯沖方向Fig.13 (a).Shear wave splitting patterns produced by a serpentinized shear zone between the subducting slab and the mantle wedge.Serpentine in the shear zone is characterized by(001)plane parallel to shear plane,and[100]axis parallel to shear direction.(b).Shear wave splitting patterns induced by serpentinized fractures in subducting oceanic plates.Serpentine has a maximum concentration of(001)plane parallel to fault plane.Olivine in the subducting plate developed A-type LPO with(010)plane parallel to subducting plates and[100] axis parallel to subducting direction
剪切快波偏振方向平行于海溝也可能是由大洋俯沖板塊上層沿?cái)嗔衙姘l(fā)生的蛇紋石化造成的(圖13b),條件是這些由定向蛇紋石充填的定向張破裂沒有被后來的剪切變形破壞或重新定向與構(gòu)造置換。物理模擬和實(shí)驗(yàn)觀察證實(shí)大洋俯沖板塊上層發(fā)育的張斷裂近乎垂直或陡傾(Feccenda et al.,2008;Jiao et al.,2000;Ranero et al.,2005)。每條斷裂的兩壁上超基性巖的主要造巖礦物橄欖石和輝石經(jīng)水化形成蛇紋石、滑石和水鎂石等層狀礦物。Boudier et al.(2009)利用透射電鏡(TEM)和電子背散射衍射(EBSD)技術(shù)研究了Utah-Farallon俯沖帶內(nèi)超基性巖中葉蛇紋石和橄欖石組構(gòu)之間的定向關(guān)系,發(fā)現(xiàn)了兩種拓?fù)潢P(guān)系:(1)橄欖石的(100)面平行于葉蛇紋石的(001)面,橄欖石的[001]方向平行于葉蛇紋石的[010]方向,橄欖石的[010]方向平行于葉蛇紋石的[100]方向,這樣拓?fù)潢P(guān)系記著:(100)ol∥(001)atg,[001]ol∥[010]atg,[010]ol∥[100]atg;(2)橄欖石的(010)面平行于葉蛇紋石的(001)面,橄欖石的[001]方向平行于葉蛇紋石的[010]方向,橄欖石的[100]方向平行于葉蛇紋石的[100]方向,這樣的拓?fù)潢P(guān)系記著(010)ol∥(001)atg,[001]ol∥[010]atg,[001]ol∥[100]atg。
其中第一種拓?fù)潢P(guān)系在俯沖板塊中更為常見,橄欖巖發(fā)育A型組構(gòu)(圖7),橄欖石[100]的優(yōu)選方向平行于橄欖巖的拉張線理,而張裂隙則垂直于該線理,裂隙內(nèi)葉蛇紋石的(001)面平行于裂隙面生長,故葉蛇紋石的(001)面垂直橄欖石[100]的優(yōu)選方向。因?yàn)殚蠙焓目觳O化方向平行其[100]方向,而蛇紋石的快波極化方向平行于(001)面方向,所以具第一種拓?fù)潢P(guān)系的蛇紋石化橄欖巖的剪切波分裂特征取決于巖石中橄欖石的LPO強(qiáng)度、蛇紋石的含量及其LPO強(qiáng)度。一般來說,由橄欖石LPO形成的地震波各向異性僅為3%~5%,而由蛇紋石LPO形成的各向異性總是很強(qiáng)(甚至可以高達(dá)15%~25%)。所以,只要蛇紋石的含量超過20%,則蛇紋石化橄欖巖的剪切波分裂就由蛇紋石的LPO主導(dǎo)。如圖13b所示,由蛇紋石LPO主導(dǎo)的剪切快波偏振方向平行于張裂隙的走向,俯沖板塊上層中這些陡傾的張裂隙又垂直于板塊的總體運(yùn)動(dòng)方向或平行于海溝走向,這就很容易解釋為什么剪切快波偏振方向平行于海溝的走向。
地幔楔的地震波各向異性特征應(yīng)是葉蛇紋石LPO和A型橄欖石LPO相互競爭的結(jié)果。在地幔楔內(nèi)的拐角流作用下,橄欖石形成A型組構(gòu),理應(yīng)使得φMW垂直于海溝走向。但是,蛇紋石化作用將改變地幔楔各向異性的樣式。例如,占全巖體積約10%~20%的蛇紋石化作用幾乎能全部抵消由橄欖石LPO形成的各向異性,使整體巖石近乎各向同性。如果地幔楔橄欖巖中蛇紋石的體積分?jǐn)?shù)大于20%,且具有前述的第一種拓?fù)潢P(guān)系(Boudier et al.,2009),那么地幔楔整體的 φMW則受蛇紋石LPO的控制。由于蛇紋石的(001)面垂直于海溝走向,故測量到的φMW是平行于海溝的。如果上述解釋是正確的,那么φMW與海溝走向的幾何定向關(guān)系就是地幔楔中蛇紋石化程度與分布的度量。
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On the Formation of Seismic Anisotropy and Shear Wave Splitting in Oceanic Subduction Zones
SUN Shengsi1and JI Shaocheng1,2
(1.Département des Génies Civil,Géologique et des Mines,école Polytechnique de Montréal,Montréal H3C3A7,Canada;2.Institute of Geology,Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences;Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics,Ministry of Land and Resources,Beijing100037,China)
Subduction zones are critically important regions where significant geological processes(e.g.,phase transition,dehydration,partial melting,volcanism,and seismic activity)take place.Seismic anisotropy formed by different parts of subduction system(i.e.,the overriding plate,the mantle wedge,the subducting slab,and the subslab mantle)can be distinguished by analyzing seismic wave raypaths.Here we provide a state-of-art overview on shear wave splitting patterns measured from global oceanic subduction zones,and on mechanism models[e.g.,2D corner flow,3D trench-parallel flow induced by trench migration,olivine lattice preferred orientations(LPO)and serpentinization].Olivine LPOs formed by(010)[100],(010)[001],(100)[001],{0kl}[100],(001)[100]and{110}[001]slip systems are identified as A,B,C,D,E and F-type fabrics,respectively.The A,D,and E-type fabrics cause fast polarization directions(φ)parallel to the mantle flow while φ formed by B-type fabric is perpendicular to the mantle flow.Olivine C-type LPO also results in a φ parallel to the mantle flow,but the resultant delay time(δt)is much smaller than that of A-type.F-type fabric results in almost no splitting in the direction normal to the mantle flow plane.In mantle wedge and subducting lithosphere mantle,the most important hydrous mineral is antigorite,which is characterized by extremely low flow strength,low seismic velocities,and high elastic anisotropy.Accordingly,the extensively serpentinized mantle wedge rocks usually have relative high seismic anisotropy and shear wave splitting.If more than 10%~20%serpentinization occurs,serpentine LPO would control the seismic anisotropy of the deformed mantle rocks.As the shear wave splitting in mantle wedge depends on both the degree of serpentinization and the slab dip,those highly serpentinized and steeply dipped subduction systems are more likely to produce a trench-parallel φ.
oceanic subduction zones;seismic anisotropy;shear wave splitting;olivine fabric;trench migration;serpentinization;mantle wedge
P541;P315.2
A
1001-1552(2011)04-0628-020
2011-07-08
項(xiàng)目資助:加拿大自然科學(xué)與工程委員會(huì)(NSERC)和中國地質(zhì)調(diào)查局地質(zhì)調(diào)查項(xiàng)目基金資助。
孫圣思(1985-),女,博士研究生,主要從事巖石物理、構(gòu)造地質(zhì)學(xué)研究。
嵇少丞,Email:sji@polymtl.ca