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γδ T細胞抗人類免疫缺陷病毒感染作用的研究進展

2012-03-19 21:35何璇梁華邵一鳴
微生物與感染 2012年1期
關鍵詞:感染者亞群抗病毒

何璇,梁華,邵一鳴

中國疾病預防控制中心性病艾滋病預防控制中心,北京 102206

自1981年確認首例艾滋病患者以來,艾滋病已迅速擴散至世界范圍,成為威脅人類健康的重大傳染病之一??共《靖腥镜牡?道防線——天然免疫已日趨成為研究熱點。γδ T 細胞作為天然免疫的重要組分,在抗人類免疫缺陷病毒(human immunodeficiency virus,HIV)的天然免疫甚至獲得性免疫中發(fā)揮了重要作用。

T細胞依據T細胞受體 (T cell receptor,TCR)的不同,分為αβ T細胞和γδ T細胞。與αβ T細胞不同,γδ T細胞不表達CD4和CD8,無需主要組織相容性復合物(major histocompatibility complex,MHC)限制即可直接識別抗原而發(fā)揮作用。γδ T 細胞主要分2個亞群:Vδ1亞群,集中分布于上皮組織中,可能參與呼吸道、腸道等黏膜免疫[1-4];Vδ2亞群,為外周血的主要γδ T細胞亞群,其中Vγ2Vδ2 亞型(也稱Vγ9Vδ2)是主要循環(huán)細胞,占血液T細胞的1%~5%,在抗微生物感染和抗腫瘤免疫方面發(fā)揮作用。已有多項研究表明,γδ T細胞不但可以直接識別并殺傷靶細胞,參與早期抗HIV的天然免疫,而且其分泌的各類細胞因子及抗原呈遞細胞(antigen-presenting cell, APC)有助于誘發(fā)獲得性免疫反應[5]。

1 γδ T細胞激活

1.1 TCR介導的激活

Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞表面的TCR能直接識別低相對分子質量的非肽抗原,而無需抗原呈遞[6]。在HIV感染中,HIV復制能改變細胞代謝途徑,從而增加并釋放中間產物phosphometabolite (PM),使Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞持續(xù)激活。異戊烯焦磷酸單酯 (isopentenyl pyrophosphate,IPP) 是較常見的磷酸類抗原,為真核細胞中甲羥戊酸-膽固醇代謝途徑的中間產物,識別病變細胞或感染細胞釋放的危險信號[7],常用作Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞體外功能檢測的刺激劑。此外,體外實驗中Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞還能被一些非磷酸類物質激活,如烷基胺(alkylamine)、Ecto-F1-ATP合成酶(Ecto-F1-ATPase)[8]等。另外,有研究表明,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞還能識別熱休克蛋白(heat shock protein,HSP)家族中的成員,這些蛋白可能是病變細胞或感染細胞過度表達的產物[1,9]。

1.2 共刺激分子介導的激活

除通過TCR識別非肽抗原外,γδ T細胞表面其他分子也參與γδ T細胞的激活,這類分子稱為“共刺激分子”(co-receptor)。包括4類:黏附配體(adhesion partner molecule)、Toll樣受體(Toll-like receptor,TLR)、天然殺傷受體(natural killer receptor,NKR)及Fc受體。黏附配體包括淋巴細胞功能相關抗原1(lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1,LFA-1)、胞內黏附分子﹝如細胞間黏附分子1(intercellular adhesion molecule 1,ICAM-1)、CD2/LFA-3等﹞[10,11]。TLR屬模式分子識別受體(pattern recognition receptor,PRR)家族成員,可廣泛識別病原體相關分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular pattern,PAMP)而參與γδ T細胞激活。如TLR3可使已被TCR激活的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞上調一些基因,表達與細胞毒作用相關的蛋白[12,13]。大多數γδ T細胞,尤其是具細胞毒功能的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞中有表達活化NKR(activating NKR,aNKR)和抑制NKR(inhibitory NKR,iNKR)的作用。這2種受體之間的平衡作用直接影響γδ T細胞功能。aNKR+γδ T細胞能識別MHCⅠ類缺陷細胞,如K562和Daudi細胞系,而發(fā)揮細胞殺傷效應,其殺傷機制稱為“missing self”假說[14]。γδ T細胞中iNKR具有抑制受體的功能,與各種人類白細胞抗原(human leukocyte antigen,HLA)Ⅰ類分子結合后,啟動殺傷細胞阻止信號,從而參與控制TCR介導的對保守自身抗原和外源性配體的免疫反應[15]。此外,NKR還協(xié)助Vδ2 T細胞穿越內皮細胞層[16]。與NK細胞一樣,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞也能表達FcγRⅢ(CD16),且CD16的表達與Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞的效應細胞分化相關[17],并直接介導Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞發(fā)揮抗體依賴細胞介導的細胞毒性(antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity,ADCC)作用。

2 γδ T細胞與HIV的相互作用

2.1 γδ T細胞在抗HIV感染中的作用

γδ T細胞亞群根據表達的TCR不同,有不同的分布和功能。存在于外周血中的Vδ2 T細胞具細胞毒作用,能產生大量γ干擾素(interferon γ,IFN-γ)和腫瘤壞死因子α(tumor necrosis factor α,TNF-α);而存在于組織中的Vδ1 T細胞細胞毒作用較小,主要產生各種細胞因子,包括白細胞介素4(interleukin 4,IL-4)和IL-17[18,19]。當受抗原刺激時,γδ T細胞的2個細胞群表達與各自功能相關的趨化受體,可轉移到胞外組織的炎癥部位,發(fā)揮抗感染作用。激活后的γδ T細胞表達CC趨化因子受體7(chemokine CC motif receptor 7,CCR7),遷移到淋巴結,發(fā)揮抗HIV感染作用[20]。黏膜 Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞可在抗HIV感染早期發(fā)揮一定作用。恒河猴口腔注射猴免疫缺陷病毒(simian immunodeficiency virus,SIV)后,在較短時間內便可觀察到隨淋巴結歸巢受體表達增加黏膜γδ T細胞顯著增加[21]。

HIV感染期間,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞通過非特異地識別HIV,直接或間接發(fā)揮抗病毒功能?;罨蟮腣γ9Vδ2 T細胞能分泌Th1類細胞因子,包括TNF-α、 IFN-γ。體外實驗中,經IPP刺激的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞在4~12 h便可產生巨噬細胞炎性蛋白1α(macrophage inflammatory protein 1α,MIP-1α)、MIP-1β和淋巴細胞趨化因子(lymphotactin)[22]。同時,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞還能表達多種β類趨化因子受體,包括CCR1、CCR5和CCR8[23]。另外,它們同NK細胞一樣,在“missing self”機制下,通過分泌穿孔素、顆粒酶或Fas/FasL凋亡途徑發(fā)揮細胞毒作用,直接殺傷HIV感染細胞[24-26]。在靈長類動物實驗中,受IL-2刺激擴增后的γδ T細胞能直接溶解SIV感染的靶細胞,殺傷機制與NK細胞相似[27]。這與Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞表達NK細胞類似受體有關。其次,激活的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞能通過與HIV競爭CCR5共刺激分子或釋放抗病毒因子而阻止HIV復制[28,29]。在SIV黏膜感染恒河猴體內發(fā)現(xiàn)黏膜部位的γδ T細胞也具有類似功能[30]。除直接殺傷外,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞可通過CD16行使ADCC作用。Poonia等發(fā)現(xiàn)在HIV感染精英控制者中,表達CD16的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞群被高度激活。體外實驗證實,這些細胞可能通過ADCC作用殺傷被Env包被的靶細胞[31]。

除自身活化后發(fā)揮直接抗病毒感染免疫應答外,γδ T細胞還能協(xié)助其他細胞激活和趨化。HIV感染后,激活的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞產生大量前炎癥細胞因子和趨化因子,可協(xié)助中性粒細胞、巨噬細胞以及T細胞募集[32,33]。與Th17相似,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞可通過釋放單核細胞趨化蛋白2(monocyte chemoattractant protein 2,MCP-2)激活中性粒細胞,在HIV感染早期對防止胃腸黏膜中病毒擴散發(fā)揮重要作用[34]。另外,激活的Vγ9VδT細胞能誘導樹突細胞成熟和活化,表明Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞可能具有佐劑作用,可增強抗原特異性αβ T細胞反應[35,36]。Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞與單核細胞相互作用能激活Th17,使中性粒細胞激活,并轉移到炎癥部位后發(fā)生反應[37]。以上研究表明,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞與其他免疫細胞相互作用,直接參與早期抗微生物感染的免疫應答。γδ T細胞也具有一定的免疫調節(jié)作用。HIV感染者血清中新嘌呤和β2微球蛋白含量增加,與腸上皮淋巴細胞中大量存在的γδ T細胞呈負相關,表明腸上皮γδ T細胞具有限制非特異性免疫過度反應的能力[38]。

抗原刺激后的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞具有APC功能,能上調MHCⅠ類和Ⅱ類分子表達。另外,共刺激分子CD40、CD83的表達增加也表明,γδ T細胞具有吞噬細胞、呈遞抗原以及激活αβ T細胞的能力[39,40]。上述研究結果均為體外研究,γδ T細胞在體內如何行使APC功能還有待進一步研究。

2.2 HIV感染對γδ T細胞的影響

多項研究結果表明,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞與HIV感染疾病進展有直接關系。與正常人相比,HIV感染者外周血中Vδ2 T細胞/Vδ1 T細胞比例明顯倒置[41],原因包括Vδ2 T細胞丟失和外周血中Vδ1 T細胞增加。有證據表明,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞的丟失與病毒載量相關:性傳播途徑感染的HIV感染者,隨著HIV載量反彈,循環(huán)Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞丟失加重[42]。Li等通過研究146例血液污染事件中的HIV感染者,發(fā)現(xiàn)Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞數量與病毒載量呈顯著負相關,與CD4 T細胞數呈正相關[43]。該研究隨訪人群數量多,HIV感染時間和亞型基本一致,更加明確證實了Vγ9Vδ2 T 細胞數量減少與慢性HIV感染者的疾病進展緊密相關。而Vδ1 T細胞擴增與病毒載量升高呈正相關,并可能通過HIV消耗CD4+T細胞[44]。在HIV感染者血清中發(fā)現(xiàn),HIV Tat蛋白能干擾IFN-γ誘導蛋白10(IFN-γ-inducible protein 10,IP-10)/CXCL10、6Ckine/SLC/CCL21等的趨化活性[45],這很可能是γδ T細胞2個亞群在HIV感染者中分布發(fā)生變化的原因。另一研究結果也證實,Vδ1 T細胞數增加可能并不是針對HIV感染克隆擴增的結果,而是受趨化因子的影響,Vδ1 T細胞從各種組織中滲透到外周血中[34]。Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞丟失則可能是由于HIV入侵后,誘導細胞表面Fas表達增高,與Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞表面的FasL相互作用,使Vγ9Vδ2 T 細胞凋亡[46]。有趣的是,Riedel等發(fā)現(xiàn)HIV精英控制者能較好地維持Vδ2 T細胞數目,其Vδ2 T細胞數目甚至高于健康人[47],再次證實Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞在控制HIV感染方面起重要作用。

以上研究結果均顯示,HIV復制直接影響Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞內環(huán)境的穩(wěn)定。Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞在HIV復制期激活,當病毒血癥無法控制時迅速丟失,在艾滋病進展期以及HIV病毒血癥患者中丟失更為嚴重。由于HIV感染對γδ T細胞亞群有如此大的影響,且丟失細胞主要是Vδ2 T細胞亞群(包含大多數功能性細胞,即針對磷酸化抗原起反應的γδ T細胞[48]),提示該途徑可能是HIV在感染初期逃逸免疫系統(tǒng)的策略之一:降低功能性細胞群數量,從而逐步瓦解免疫系統(tǒng)。

除了數量和分布,HIV感染還影響γδ T細胞功能。HIV感染者體內存留的Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞在TCR刺激后無法擴增,也無功能性反應,如IFN-γ、TNF-α的分泌或IL-2受體的表達[49,50]。在HIV感染不同階段,通過檢測HLA-D相關表達,發(fā)現(xiàn)CD4+T細胞數與Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞激活呈負相關[51]。HIV感染早期引起大量細胞因子如IL-15、IFN-α、TNF-α釋放[52],這些前炎癥因子導致CD3ζ表達下降,這可能是γδ T細胞無功能的原因[53]。這種無功能反應也是HIV逃逸免疫系統(tǒng)的策略之一,可直接造成γδ T細胞功能不可逆性的損傷。由于猴體中Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞與人體相近,類似現(xiàn)象在SIV感染恒河猴體內也有發(fā)現(xiàn)[54,55]。

3 γδ T細胞在臨床方面的應用

近幾年來,研究學者逐漸意識到γδ T細胞在免疫臨床應用中的重要作用。正如前文所說,γδ T細胞能直接識別低相對分子質量的非肽抗原,故可利用非肽抗原激活γδ T細胞,使其發(fā)揮抗病毒感染效應。前文已經提到HIV感染直接影響Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞,使其數量下降,功能受損。有研究指出,接受高效抗反轉錄病毒治療(highly active antiretroviral therapy,HAART)后,尤其是HIV感染者體內病毒血癥得到控制時,無論Vδ2 T細胞/Vδ1 T細胞比例還是Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞功能都顯著恢復[56,57],表明γδ T細胞與抗病毒治療中病毒血癥的控制有關。如果能在HIV感染者體內注入非肽抗原協(xié)助Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞擴增和激活,或直接將Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞回輸體內,可能是治療HIV感染的有效方案。

控制HIV感染最有效的途徑是研制出有效的HIV疫苗。然而經過20多年研究,依然無有效的HIV疫苗上市。現(xiàn)今,除了研究如何使用疫苗誘導獲得性免疫反應外,如何協(xié)調宿主天然免疫和獲得性免疫聯(lián)合對抗HIV感染成為一個重要方向。有研究人員指出,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞可能與淋巴壓力監(jiān)測系統(tǒng)相關[58],它們是已激活但處于靜止狀態(tài)的循環(huán)淋巴細胞群,無需抗原呈遞過程便能快速而有效地對危險信號進行識別,正是連接天然免疫和獲得性免疫的重要樞紐。在近期猴體實驗中,SIVgp120免疫后的恒河猴針對SIV黏膜途徑攻毒產生保護,其中黏膜γδ T 細胞比例有所增加,且γδ T 細胞能產生抗病毒因子,如調節(jié)激活正常T細胞表達和分泌因子(regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted,RANTES)、MIP-1α 和MIP-1β[29]。因此,將γδ T細胞納入免疫激活策略,將為HIV疫苗的研制提供更多新的線索。

綜上所述,天然免疫成員γδ T細胞在抗HIV感染中起重要作用。本實驗室前期研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在HIV慢性感染期,Vγ9Vδ2 T細胞與疾病進展極其相關[44]。然而,依然存在很多問題有待解決:在HIV感染早期,γδ T細胞開始丟失的時間和丟失機制;如何增強γδ T細胞抗HIV感染作用,即加強對HIV感染細胞的殺傷能力,使HIV擴散在感染早期得以控制。對γδ T細胞作用機制的深入研究必將促進對HIV感染與宿主免疫系統(tǒng)之間相互作用的了解,進而為抗HIV感染藥物、抗病毒免疫制劑以及HIV疫苗的研究提供科學依據和研究方向。

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