河南大學(xué)
趙成新
英語第二人稱代詞不定指功能探析
河南大學(xué)
趙成新
英語第二人稱代詞(you及其他形式)主賓格同型,陰陽性同型,單復(fù)數(shù)同型,具有豐富的不定指功能。本文運(yùn)用語言學(xué)指稱理論和語用學(xué)移情理論,探討第二人稱代詞you及其相應(yīng)形式不定指功能的概念、類型、特點(diǎn)和語用效果。
you;人稱代詞;指稱;不定指稱;移情
第二人稱代詞指稱說話的對象,即聽話人。根據(jù)英語語言學(xué)指稱理論(Halliday & Hasan 1985; Quirketal. 1985),現(xiàn)代英語中的第二人稱代詞有如下一些形式:
主格賓格物主限定詞物主代詞反身代詞單數(shù)youyouyouryoursyourself復(fù)數(shù)youyouyouryoursyourselves
值得一提的是英語第二人稱代詞的主賓格同型,陰陽性同型,單復(fù)數(shù)同型(只有反身代詞例外),一律用you。這一點(diǎn)在英語人稱代詞系統(tǒng)中是比較獨(dú)特的,也給第二人稱代詞非常規(guī)功能的發(fā)揮帶來了不少便利,避免了很多像第三人稱代詞那樣要求性、數(shù)、格一致所帶來的麻煩。除常規(guī)的確定性指稱功能(即用作呼語,指稱聽話人)之外,you還有一些平時(shí)不被人注意的非常規(guī)功能,如不定指功能(indefinite reference)。本文擬探討的是第二人稱代詞不定指功能(簡稱“you的不定指功能”)的概念、類型、特點(diǎn)和語用效果。
請看下面的例子:
(1) “①I’m not obsessed by death, but I’m at an age when I have to accept that my time is about up. ②Youwant to close the accounts and take care of unfinished business. ③Doyouunderstand what I mean?”(TheGirlwiththeDragonTattoo, New York, 2005: 67)
這是美國當(dāng)下流行小說TheGirlwiththeDrgaonTattoo中的一段話,說話人是82歲的Henrik Vanger,聽話人是42歲的記者 Mikael Bromkvist。Henrik認(rèn)為自己年事已高,想在別世之前了結(jié)他過去未曾了結(jié)的心愿(他請Mikael協(xié)助調(diào)查他侄女的失蹤案)。請注意這段話中的第②句話,其中 you的指稱對象是什么?它與第③句話中的you的指稱對象有什么不同?
顯然,第③句話中的you明確無誤地指稱聽話者M(jìn)ikael,并且只指稱Mikael,是排他的;但第②句話中的you的指稱對象卻不同,它的指稱對象不僅包括聽話者,而且包括說話者,實(shí)際上它的指稱對象是所有人,這就是you的不定指功能。如果我們把第①和第②句話改寫一下,you的這種不定指用法就會(huì)更清楚地顯現(xiàn)出來:
(2)Youwant to close the accounts and take care of unfinished business at an age whenyouhave to accept thatyourtime is about up.
那么,如何對這種功能進(jìn)行定義呢?我們可以對它這樣進(jìn)行描述:第二人稱代詞的不定指功能是指在交際過程中,第二人稱代詞超越其常規(guī)功能(指稱—呼語功能),可以像一般不定代詞那樣指稱任何人的一種功能。下面再看幾個(gè)我們從當(dāng)代英語報(bào)刊或文學(xué)作品里面搜集的例子:
(3) I never had any wild crush on her, and that used to worry me about the long-term future: I used to think—and given the way we ended up, maybe I still do—that all relationships need the kind of violent shove that a crush brings, just to getyoustarted and to pushyouover the humps. And then, when the energy from that shove has gone andyouhave come to something approaching a halt,youhave a look around and see whatyou’ve got. (HighFidelity, New York, 1996: 90)
(4) Friday rolls around andyougo home to a partnerless house.Youcould stare out the window, yell at kids, or watch TV. …Youknowyou’relonely. (TucsonWeelkly, 1986-02-05)
在實(shí)際交際中,you的這種不定指用法已經(jīng)比較普遍,不僅在口語中經(jīng)常出現(xiàn),在書面語中也屢見不鮮。用Eric Hyman(2004)的話說:“我每天都能碰到這種用法的例子,you的這種不定指用法已經(jīng)隨處可見,或者說無處不在?!睂?shí)際上,已經(jīng)有一些語言研究者注意到了you的這種不定指功能,但大多數(shù)研究者還沒有給予它足夠的重視,如Jespersen(1914)、 Quirketal. (1985)都提到過它,但都是一帶而過,或者在腳注中做些簡要說明。Kitagawa & Adrienne(1990)也關(guān)注過它,把它看作一種非人稱用法。Hyman (2004)研究過you不定性指稱的特點(diǎn)和回指特征。真正把它作為一種正規(guī)語言功能進(jìn)行研究的,當(dāng)數(shù)Wales(1996)最早,她探討了you的指稱功能的不同類型,其中一類就是you的不定指功能,但她關(guān)注的重點(diǎn)在于英語方言中you的不定指用法。
一般而言,不定指稱的you多用在現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)的句子當(dāng)中,表達(dá)一種“概括化”或者“真理、道德準(zhǔn)則”等(Yule 1982: 320)。例如:
(5) “Youare whatyouproduce,” he said as he left his work. (TheBridgesofMadisonCounty, New York, 1992: 15)
再者,Goldsmith & Woisetschlaeger (1982)提出的“結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)”(structural knowledge)理論認(rèn)為,描寫現(xiàn)實(shí)世界的方式有兩種:第一種是描寫現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中發(fā)生著什么事情;第二種是描寫世界是如何構(gòu)成的,以使這樣的事情能夠發(fā)生。前者是對現(xiàn)象的描述,一般用進(jìn)行時(shí);后者描寫的是一種結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí),多用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。在描寫結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)的語境中,不定指的you經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)。請看下面的例子:
(6) Greathouse said he felt some obligation as Adam’s replacement. “The past three games, our running game has been a major factor. So I knew I had to gain some yards. I had to perform,” Greathouse said. “It’s not pressure.Youkeep it inyourmind;youknowyouhave to do it. Out there,youdon’t think about it.Youjust go play by play.”(TheArizonaDailyStar, 1986-09-28)
例子中使用不定指you和your的語篇描寫的就是一種結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí),講述的是任何一個(gè)優(yōu)秀球員在比賽中都會(huì)有的一種思想經(jīng)歷。
另外,在語篇的敘述中,有時(shí)背景的鋪陳使用進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài),話鋒突然一轉(zhuǎn),再改用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)描寫出現(xiàn)的變化,這里也經(jīng)常見到不定指you的用法。請看下面的例子:
(7)You’re going down the high way,you’re having a wonderful time, singing a song and suddenly—youget into an argument. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 749)
依據(jù)以上的討論,我們可以把 you的不定指用法分作以下3種類型:
Ⅰ. 場景嵌入型:嵌入一場景,描寫在此場景下發(fā)生的事情,通過不定指you的使用,使動(dòng)作行為一般化、概括化,使個(gè)人行為延伸為一種人人都會(huì)如此的、通行的做法。這種類型常常出現(xiàn)于結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)描寫的語境,我們可以將這類不定指you 的使用看作是語言運(yùn)用者的知識(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)在語言使用的投射(project)。上面的例子(6)就屬于這種類型。請?jiān)倏匆粋€(gè)例子:
(8) Yesterday, we went to Sabino Canyon. And I was talking with this guy who happened to drop in on us. And all of a sudden he began to get agitated, and he swung at me.Youreact instinctively at a time like that. I hit him back. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 749)
場景嵌入型不定指you 還包括一個(gè)亞類:不定指you + 情態(tài)動(dòng)詞。例如:
(9)Youcan buildyourown model ifyoulearn the basic techniques. (引自學(xué)生作文)
Ⅱ. 道德準(zhǔn)則或真理公式型:通過不定指you的使用表達(dá)“一般”的概念,說話者告訴聽話者一個(gè)說話者認(rèn)為的真理或道德規(guī)范,或者說話者希望聽話者分享的一種個(gè)人意見,希望得到聽話者的認(rèn)可。這種類型也常常出現(xiàn)于結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)描寫的語境。例如:
(10)Youkill yourself to raiseyourkids properly, and guess what happens. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 750)
(11) “Whenyouget an M.B.A., to be creative,you’ve got to start a business”, Toby Lenk says. “Whenyoudo that,you’re at the top of food chain in terms of respect”.(TheNewYorkTimes, 2002-06-09)
Ⅲ. 生活戲劇型:背景的鋪陳使用進(jìn)行時(shí)態(tài),話鋒突然一轉(zhuǎn),再改用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)描寫出現(xiàn)的變化,我們把這種類型的敘述方式稱為“生活戲劇”型。這種類型并不局限于結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)描寫的語境。前面的例(7)就屬于這種類型,請?jiān)倏匆焕?/p>
(12)Youare in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling thatyouhave really leftyourown world and time behind when suddenlyyoumeetyournext-door neighbor from home. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 749)
那么,you的不定指用法有哪些特點(diǎn)呢?經(jīng)觀察和研究,我們發(fā)現(xiàn)you的不定指用法特點(diǎn)主要有以下幾個(gè)方面:
A.對于Ⅰ型(場景嵌入型)的不定指you而言,都可以被one替代,也可以用everyone或anyone替代,語篇的基本意義不變。如例(8)和例(9)中的句子可以改寫為下面的句子,基本語義不變:
(13)One/Everyone/Anyonereacts instinctively at a time like that.
(14)One/Everyone/Anyonecan build his own model if they learn the basic techniques.
B. 對于Ⅱ型(道德準(zhǔn)則或真理公式型)而言,所有的不定指you都可以由one來替代,語篇的基本語義不變;但如果用everyone或者anyone替代you,就不那么容易了,就會(huì)涉及到一定程度的變化。如例(2)可以改成:
(2’)Onewants to close the accounts and take care of unfinished business at an age when one has to accept that his time is about up.
但若把you換成everyone或者anyone,句子就不通了。例(10)也是這樣:
(15)Onekills himself to raise his kids properly, and guess what happens.
(16) ?Everyone/*Anyonekills himself to raise his kids properly, and guess what happens.
C. 對于Ⅲ型(生活戲劇型)而言,不定指you不能用one、everyone或anyone替代,否則語篇的基本意義將改變。
(17) ?Oneis in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling thatonehas really left his own world and time behind when suddenlyonemeets his next-door neighbor from home.
(18) *Everyone/*Anyoneis in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling that they have really left their own world and time behind when suddenly they meet their next-door neighbor from home.
D. Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型中的不定指you拒絕間接引語中的人稱轉(zhuǎn)換,也就是說,即使在間接引語中,仍然可以使用you,不用轉(zhuǎn)換為第三人稱。
例(8)可以用下面的方式表達(dá):
(19) Jack says thatyoureact instinctively at a time like that. (Ⅰ型)
(20) Jack said thatyoucan buildyourown model ifyoulearn the basic techniques. (Ⅰ型)
(21) Jack says thatyoukillyourselfto raiseyourkids properly, and guess what happens. (Ⅱ型)
但是,III型的句子如果換成間接引語,其中的不定指you如果不進(jìn)行人稱轉(zhuǎn)換,就會(huì)給人一種不自然的感覺。例如:
(22) ?Jack says thatyouare in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling thatyouhave really leftyourown world and time behind when suddenlyyoumeetyournext-door neighbor from home.
以上例子說明普適性具有層級感,這可以通過抽象化的層次表現(xiàn)出來。對于一般性的直接描寫、以事件為出發(fā)點(diǎn)的結(jié)構(gòu)知識(shí)的描寫與“生活戲劇”的敘述而言,抽象化的層次體現(xiàn)出了差異。這也證明了英語的人稱代詞能夠以有趣的方式進(jìn)入語言的概括、抽象系統(tǒng),超越了其自身普通的指稱—呼語功能。
E. 不定指指稱不能排除它無標(biāo)記指稱的對象。You的不定指用法中,不能把聽話者排除在指稱范圍之外,既不能通過“I don’t mean you personally”這樣的表達(dá)把聽話者排除在指稱對象之外,原因是you指稱的是everybody,其中必然包括指稱—呼語you。
例如:下面的例(24) 就顯得不合邏輯。
(23) But I have a gift for teaching ... Plus, teaching fiction writing is a lot like writing.Youhave to examine manuscripts, useyourmind, come up with possibilities, respond to characters in situations. In a lot of ways, it’s like working onyourown work. (TheArizonaPost, 1986-10-03)
(24) *Youhave to examine manuscripts—I don’t meanyoupersonally—useyourmind.
說話者為什么要使用不定指的you呢?我們考察了有關(guān)語言學(xué)理論,發(fā)現(xiàn)移情理論對這一現(xiàn)象做出了解釋。移情說是美學(xué)的重要理論,由德國哲學(xué)家、美學(xué)家弗里德利?!べM(fèi)肖爾(Friedrich Theodor Vis-cher 1807-1887)所創(chuàng)立。把移情引入語言學(xué)理論并做深入研究的是日本語言學(xué)家Kuno(1987),他認(rèn)為移情是指說話人與其在語句中所描寫的事物或狀態(tài)的參與人或物之間關(guān)系的密切程度。Kuno提出兩條移情原則:一是“表層結(jié)構(gòu)移情等級體系”,主語所指對象往往比其他名詞短語所指對象更容易取得較高的移情值;二是 “言語行為移情等級體系”(Speech Act Empathy Hierarchy,簡稱SAEH):說話人本身總是比別人更容易獲得較高的移情值?;蛘哒f,說話人與自己的關(guān)系總是比與別人的關(guān)系更密切。這條原則可以用公式表示為:SAEH: Speaker> Others。從上面的第二條原則中可以引申出“人稱移情等級體系”(Person Empathy Hierarchy):第一人稱代詞所指對象往往比其他人稱代詞所指對象更容易獲得較高的移情值,其次是第二人稱代詞所指對象, 而最不容易獲得較高移情值的是第三人稱代詞所指對象。即SAEH:1st> 2nd> 3rd。我國語用學(xué)專家何自然(1991)也對語用移情進(jìn)行了深入的研究,他認(rèn)為語用移情是指言語交際雙方在情感溝通過程中能夠設(shè)想和理解對方的用意,站在對方的角度來編碼或解碼。語用移情也指言語交際的一方如何刻意對另一方吐露心聲、表達(dá)用意,聽話人或讀者又如何設(shè)身處地地來理解說話人或?qū)懽髡叩囊鈭D和心態(tài)。我們認(rèn)為,說話人總是從某一個(gè)視點(diǎn)或某一個(gè)觀察角度來描寫事物的狀態(tài),從這個(gè)意義上講, 我們也可以把“移情”定義為觀察事物的點(diǎn)或角度。如果視點(diǎn)與說話人距離較近,則該點(diǎn)的移情值高;反之, 則移情值低。
本文討論的不定指you的使用,是把語篇中正常情況下應(yīng)該使用第一人稱(I 及相應(yīng)形式)的地方換成了第二人稱(you及相應(yīng)形式)。根據(jù)Kuno的SAEH理論,這樣做是說話者用移情值較低的第二人稱替代移情值較高的第一人稱,也就是說,降低了移情值。降低移情值的目的是:說話者把自己同化于一個(gè)人數(shù)更多的群體,在交際的過程中,把他自己的經(jīng)歷降格為一個(gè)任何人都有可能遇到的一個(gè)偶然事件,這樣可以減少或消除自我中心主義(egocentricity)傾向,增強(qiáng)陳述內(nèi)容的客觀性,更容易讓聽話者或讀者接受自己的觀點(diǎn),激起他們的共鳴。如下例:
(25) When I got to Oxford, I think the first thing I learned was that for the first time in my lifeyouare totally divorced fromyourbackground.Yougo as an individual. (Margaret Thatcher) (引自Hyman 2004: 161)
這里,在敘述的過程中,由第一人稱轉(zhuǎn)換為第二人稱,把自己的經(jīng)歷推廣為每個(gè)在Oxford學(xué)習(xí)過或生活過的人的經(jīng)歷,同時(shí)把聽話者由局外人轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榫謨?nèi)人,這樣更容易喚起聽話者的反應(yīng),因?yàn)槁犜捳呖煞譃閮深悾阂活愂窃?jīng)在Oxford生活過的人,這些人聽了Margaret Thatcher的講話,很可能會(huì)回想起自己過去的經(jīng)歷;另一類是沒有在Oxford生活過的人,他們聽了Margaret Thatcher的講話后,也有可能會(huì)設(shè)想一下自己在那里生活的樣子。如果我們把例(25)改為下面(26)的例子,就可能無法激起聽話者上述的這些回想和設(shè)想。
(26) When I got to Oxford, I think the first thing I learned was that for the first time in my life I am totally divorced from my background. I go as an individual.
借鑒Kuno的移情理論,通過觀察,我們發(fā)現(xiàn)不定指you的使用具有以下幾種語用效果:
A. 說話者通過不定指you的使用,可以創(chuàng)造直接交流的真實(shí)感覺, 使說話者和聽話者之間的心理距離消失,從而使聽話者與“你”合二為一,這樣使聽話者站在你的角度考慮問題,更容易接受你的觀點(diǎn)。請看下例:
(27) “It is plain arithmetic. All we have to do is to know the figures.Youcan add them up foryourself, and the proof is going to be at the end. It won’t mean a thing if we don’t go and vote.”(TheBuchtelite, 2012-11-06)
(28) Being a campus president isn’t what it used to be. “I’m spending a great deal of time outside the university”, John La Tourette said. “Youcan’t be out on campus as much asyouused to be. … You have to raise funds”. (引自Hyman 2004: 161)
B. 第二人稱具有一種對話性,表現(xiàn)在敘事者身上,就是敘述者在意識(shí)上一分為二,好像兩個(gè)自我,其中一個(gè)自我扮演當(dāng)事者的角色,另一個(gè)充當(dāng)評判者,造成對話時(shí)咄咄逼人的情勢。
(29) “I don’t think anybody runs Sid Bass’s life unless he wantsyouto run it”, says this man. (BridgetJone’sDiary, New York, 1998: 256)
(30) “Youmen just can’t understand the changes women go through every month or the effect that having a baby has onyou”. (引自Hyman 2004: 164)
C.通過不定指you的使用,有時(shí)候說話者與聽話者分享一種愉悅的經(jīng)歷或信息,有時(shí)候說話者表達(dá)一種無奈、憤懣或自責(zé)。如例(7)表達(dá)的是一種憤懣,而例(10)表達(dá)的是自己在撫養(yǎng)和教育子女上的無奈。下面的例(31)說話者表達(dá)的是一種令人愉快的情狀;而例(32)表現(xiàn)的則是說話者對于大眾化市場的無奈或憤懣。
(31) In town,youcan leaveyourcar unlocked and letyourchildren run without worrying about them. (TheBridgesofMadisonCounty, New York, 1992: 50)
(32) “That’s the problem in earning a living through an art form.You’re always dealing with markets and markets-mass markets-are designed to suit average tastes…” (TheBridgesofMadisonCounty, New York, 1992: 61)
D. 由于不定指you傾向于概括化和一般化,使共指對象擴(kuò)大為先行詞以外,與其相聯(lián)系的一個(gè)副產(chǎn)品:把句子變成了格言或警句。例如:
(33) The tone of Janice’s correspondence was more reasonable than her mother’s:youcould do an awful lot, she always said, ifyoukept the correspondence pleasant. (DeathofaSalespersonandOtherUntimelyExits, New York, 1989: 58)
(34) Nobody gets to writeyourdestiny butyou. (Obama’s speech at a high school, 2010)
(35) The hard time inyourlife is really good toyou. (美國ABC電視臺(tái)Bachelorette節(jié)目,2012-07-22, Season 8,Episode 11:在上期節(jié)目中求愛被拒絕的選手Michael回答節(jié)目主持人訪談時(shí)說的話。)
E. 使用不定指的you,強(qiáng)化了上下語篇的銜接。不定指you通過動(dòng)態(tài)延伸回指,擴(kuò)大了you的指稱范圍,但仍包括了本來的指稱—呼語you,使聽話者在理解語篇時(shí)增大了自由度,這樣也在無形中強(qiáng)化了上下語篇的銜接。請看下面的例子:
(36) In one week and two days, I will be finished with nine months of treatment for cancer. First they poisonyou; then they burnyou. I’ve had more fun. And it’s almost over,you’re grateful to absolutely everyone and I am…Being sick actually narrowsyourworld, I’m afraid—makesyoufocus more onyourself. Maybe when it’s over andyoudon’t feel like crud all the time, thenyourspirit soars. The chief reason to keep working is because it takesyourmind offyourself.…Youcan’t get through this without a lot of help fromyourfriends. I had a party for all my helpers after I got through chemo. (http://www.workingforchange.com/article.cfm?ItemID=6513)
上面的例子中穿插使用不定指you及其變化形式和I及其變化形式,使聽話者感到自己與說話者處在相同的感受中,上下語篇的銜接并非因?yàn)槿朔Q代詞的轉(zhuǎn)化減弱了,而是進(jìn)一步增強(qiáng)了。
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H314.3
A
2095-5723(2013)02-0023-06
(責(zé)任編輯 任鳳梅)
2013-05-23
通訊地址: 475001 河南省開封市 河南大學(xué)研究生院