馬婧嶔,顏志平
·綜述General review·
門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓:從病因到治療的研究進(jìn)展
馬婧嶔,顏志平
隨著影像診斷技術(shù)的進(jìn)步,曾被認(rèn)為是罕見(jiàn)病的門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的確診率迅速上升。全身因素(包括各種促血栓形成的危險(xiǎn)因素)以及局部因素(包括肝硬化、腹腔創(chuàng)傷及感染、惡性腫瘤等)均可導(dǎo)致門靜脈血栓形成。目前依據(jù)臨床癥狀出現(xiàn)時(shí)間的長(zhǎng)短以及是否存在門脈海綿樣變將門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓分為急性和慢性兩類,這兩類門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓分別具有不同的臨床表現(xiàn)及治療原則。急性血栓的治療原則為復(fù)通閉塞的門靜脈,降低血栓進(jìn)入腸系膜上靜脈的危險(xiǎn)性;慢性血栓則為治療和預(yù)防門脈高壓后產(chǎn)生的并發(fā)癥。門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的介入治療在血管再通、減輕門脈高壓引起的并發(fā)癥以及恢復(fù)阻塞靜脈血流方面起到很大作用。本文將就門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓從病因到治療的最新進(jìn)展做一綜述。
門靜脈血栓;病因;臨床表現(xiàn);抗凝治療;介入治療
門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓是指血栓對(duì)門靜脈、脾靜脈和腸系膜上靜脈管腔造成的完全或部分阻塞。以往門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓被認(rèn)為是一種罕見(jiàn)病,隨著診斷技術(shù)的發(fā)展,其確診率正在不斷提高,在肝硬化以及肝移植的患者中更高。全身和局部因素均可導(dǎo)致門靜脈血栓形成,其中最常見(jiàn)的因素為肝硬化。傳統(tǒng)將門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓按照癥狀持續(xù)時(shí)間長(zhǎng)短或是否伴有門靜脈海綿樣變分為急性和慢性兩類。急性和慢性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓具有不同的臨床表現(xiàn)和治療原則。我們將就門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓從病因到治療的最新進(jìn)展做一綜述。
以往認(rèn)為,在普通人群中門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓非常罕見(jiàn),故大多為個(gè)案或病例系列報(bào)道,缺乏大規(guī)模的流行病學(xué)研究[1-2]。Ogren等[3]于2006年報(bào)道了23 796例瑞典人尸檢結(jié)果,發(fā)現(xiàn)254例有門靜脈血栓,患病率約為1%,男女間無(wú)顯著差別。在發(fā)展中國(guó)家由于腹腔感染發(fā)生率較高,門靜脈血栓更為多見(jiàn)[4]。這些資料顯示門靜脈血栓并不罕見(jiàn)。在我國(guó)即使65歲以上老年人中有1%的患病率,人數(shù)也可能超過(guò)百萬(wàn)。造成罕見(jiàn)的原因可能是許多部分血栓或有較好側(cè)支循環(huán)的患者不出現(xiàn)癥狀或僅有腹痛、腹脹等模糊癥狀[5-6],對(duì)這些患者往往未做針對(duì)性的檢查,從而導(dǎo)致漏診。隨著CT、MRI和超聲技術(shù)在腹腔疾病診斷中的普及,門靜脈血栓的確診率也已逐步上升[7]。
肝硬化患者中門靜脈血栓的患病率達(dá)10%~20%,其比率隨肝硬化嚴(yán)重程度而增加,在需做肝移植的患者中比率最高[4,8-9]。肝癌患者中門靜脈血栓的患病率為10%~44%[3,6,9-10]。患門脈高壓的成年人中約30%伴有門靜脈血栓,而兒童中該比率可高達(dá)>75%[11]。此外,腹部感染、創(chuàng)傷和手術(shù)均可能增加門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的發(fā)生率[12-14]。
血管損傷、血流淤滯和血液高凝是導(dǎo)致靜脈血栓的3個(gè)重要病理因素,這些因素可單獨(dú)或合并出現(xiàn)[15]。門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓可由局部和全身因素造成。局部因素占70%,全身因素占30%[16]。最常見(jiàn)的局部因素為肝硬化、腹腔臟器惡性腫瘤(肝和胰腺為多見(jiàn))和肝移植[4,16],其他包括腹腔感染(如胰腺炎、膽囊炎和闌尾炎等)、腹腔損傷和腹腔手術(shù)等[4,16-17]。引起門靜脈血栓的常見(jiàn)手術(shù)有膽道手術(shù)、脾切除、胃切除、門-腔靜脈分流和肝移植等[12-13,18-19],還有相當(dāng)一部分患者病因不明[4]。
全身因素包括各種促血栓形成的危險(xiǎn)因素[5,16-17,20-23]。在這些因素中以骨髓增生性疾病和凝血因子ⅤLeiden突變最為常見(jiàn)[16,22,24]。此外,凝血酶原基因突變和天然抗凝蛋白(蛋白C,蛋白S和抗凝血酶Ⅲ)下降也是導(dǎo)致門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓形成的重要因素[25]。目前認(rèn)為許多病因不明的患者與這些促血栓形成因素有關(guān)[26]。全身和局部因素有時(shí)合并存在,使門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓形成明顯增加。如凝血酶原基因突變和天然抗凝蛋白下降常發(fā)生在伴有肝硬化的門靜脈血栓患者中[16-17]。對(duì)有骨髓增生性疾病患者做脾切除也可使門靜脈血栓的發(fā)生率增加[27]。門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的常見(jiàn)病因見(jiàn)表1。
表1 門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的病因
門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓分急性和慢性兩類,但沒(méi)有明確的時(shí)間限定。一般認(rèn)為急性血栓的癥狀出現(xiàn)<60 d[28],但這有時(shí)很難定義。區(qū)分急慢性血栓的簡(jiǎn)單方法是急性血栓無(wú)側(cè)支血管和門靜脈海綿樣變,并且沒(méi)有門脈高壓癥狀,如脾腫大和食管靜脈曲張[26]。
3.1急性血栓
急性血栓有時(shí)僅有非特異性癥狀甚至沒(méi)有癥狀[29-30]。最典型的是突然發(fā)作的劇烈腹痛,其他還包括惡心、發(fā)熱和腹瀉[24,29]。體檢可發(fā)現(xiàn)脾腫大,而腹水常不明顯[24]。癥狀的嚴(yán)重程度與血栓時(shí)間、程度、范圍和部位有關(guān)。最嚴(yán)重的是腸系膜上靜脈及其靜脈弓完全血栓,可產(chǎn)生腸缺血和腸壞死[31]。但腸壞死非常罕見(jiàn),在所有急性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓患者中發(fā)生率不到5%[24]。門靜脈部分血栓產(chǎn)生的癥狀較輕。
除了有肝臟疾病,實(shí)驗(yàn)室檢查一般無(wú)明顯異常[24]。采用非侵襲性成像技術(shù),如超聲、CT和MRI,是診斷門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓最有效的方法[32-35]。超聲可顯示靜脈管腔中的固體物和側(cè)支血管(海綿樣變性),彩色多普勒超聲儀可確定血流方向[36]。但是,超聲對(duì)診斷腸系膜上靜脈血栓不甚理想,CT和MRI則可清晰顯示腸系膜上靜脈血栓。因此,CT和MRI診斷門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的敏感性高于超聲。
3.2慢性血栓
如果血栓的靜脈不能獲得早期再通,將導(dǎo)致永久性閉塞。但往往可迅速(數(shù)日內(nèi))建立側(cè)支血管網(wǎng)與阻塞上下端的開(kāi)放靜脈相交通[15,37],約3~5周顯示出門靜脈海綿樣變[38]。側(cè)支血管主要由一些原有的靜脈擴(kuò)張而成,其血管阻力明顯大于正常門靜脈。因此,門靜脈主干或肝內(nèi)門靜脈支阻塞可導(dǎo)致門脈高壓[29]。
慢性門靜脈血栓以門脈高壓征象為主。門脈高壓可產(chǎn)生許多并發(fā)癥,如胃食管靜脈曲張、脾腫大、貧血和血小板減少等[26]。20%~40%患者可發(fā)生上消化道出血[6,39]。有些患者膽總管受擴(kuò)張門靜脈壓迫而發(fā)生阻塞,從而產(chǎn)生門脈性膽管病。這些患者可以無(wú)癥狀,也可出現(xiàn)黃疸、腹痛或膽管炎[4,40]。腹水和肝性腦病不常見(jiàn),除非患者患有肝臟疾病。其他并發(fā)癥有血胸和肝腎綜合征。在無(wú)肝硬化和惡性腫瘤的患者中慢性門靜脈血栓可不出現(xiàn)癥狀[29]。
脾功能亢進(jìn)患者可出現(xiàn)血常規(guī)變化。當(dāng)有脾腫大和門脈高壓時(shí)要注意是否存在骨髓增生性疾?。?1]。肝功能檢查一般正常,但凝血因子和抑制物的水平常有所下降,很可能與輕度肝功能受損有關(guān)[12,25]。大多數(shù)慢性門靜脈血栓患者有脾腫大、血細(xì)胞降低,胃食管靜脈曲張和門靜脈海綿樣變性。對(duì)每例門脈高壓患者都需考慮慢性門靜脈血栓的可能性[29]。多普勒超聲和CT都很容易發(fā)現(xiàn)側(cè)支靜脈[42]。肝活檢不僅能診斷肝硬化,還可排除阻塞性門靜脈病和其他一些罕見(jiàn)疾病。目前典型的靜脈曲張性出血在西方國(guó)家明顯減少,但在發(fā)展中國(guó)家仍多見(jiàn)[29]。
除了潛在性疾病外,急性和慢性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓具有不同的治療原則。血液疾病的治療在本文中不作詳細(xì)討論。
4.1急性血栓
4.1.1抗凝治療對(duì)急性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的治療有2個(gè)目的:①?gòu)?fù)通閉塞的門靜脈,避免發(fā)展為慢性血栓;②降低血栓進(jìn)入腸系膜上靜脈的危險(xiǎn)性,避免引起腸壞死。已有確鑿證據(jù)顯示門靜脈系統(tǒng)的急性血栓極少發(fā)生血管自行再通,而早期抗凝治療可使許多患者的阻塞靜脈獲得完全或部分再通[7,30,43]。因此,所有急性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓患者只要沒(méi)有明確的禁忌證均應(yīng)進(jìn)行抗凝治療[31,44-45],這一點(diǎn)現(xiàn)已達(dá)成共識(shí)??鼓委熤辽倬S持3個(gè)月,根據(jù)情況可延長(zhǎng)到6個(gè)月,對(duì)患有易栓癥(thrombophilia)患者可終身抗凝[24,30,44]??鼓璞M早開(kāi)始,其療效隨用藥時(shí)間的推延逐步下降[4,43]。除了血管再通外,抗凝治療的另一個(gè)作用是防止血栓的蔓延。血栓阻塞腸系膜上靜脈可導(dǎo)致腸缺血壞死。一旦出現(xiàn)腸壞死,應(yīng)立刻進(jìn)行手術(shù)切除[31]。
4.1.2經(jīng)門靜脈介入治療全身性抗凝治療的血管再通率并不很高,但其優(yōu)點(diǎn)是并發(fā)癥少而輕。發(fā)病早期(第1周)迅速抗凝可使血管再通達(dá)70%左右,稍晚(第2周)給藥血管再通僅25%[4,43],超過(guò)6個(gè)月給藥療效為零[46]。許多患者,尤其是非肝硬化-非惡性腫瘤患者,因早期癥狀不很明顯,容易錯(cuò)過(guò)早期抗凝的時(shí)機(jī)。Plessier等[46]報(bào)道,抗凝治療后門靜脈、脾靜脈和腸系膜上靜脈的1年再通率分別為38%、61%和54%。Hall等[1]對(duì)15篇文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)228例完全性門靜脈栓塞的患者經(jīng)抗凝后有38.3%達(dá)到門靜脈完全再通,14%獲部分再通。這些資料表示在相當(dāng)一部分患者中抗凝治療的效果并不佳。近年來(lái)越來(lái)越多臨床醫(yī)師對(duì)門靜脈系統(tǒng)栓塞進(jìn)行經(jīng)門靜脈介入治療,包括介入性門體分流術(shù)、門脈內(nèi)碎栓和溶栓[1,47]。常用進(jìn)入門靜脈途徑包括經(jīng)皮穿肝內(nèi)門靜脈和經(jīng)頸內(nèi)靜脈門體分流術(shù)(TIPS)等途徑[47-48]。對(duì)于抗凝治療失敗的患者可嘗試經(jīng)門靜脈介入療法。對(duì)急性門靜脈系統(tǒng)栓塞采用靜脈介入進(jìn)行局部溶栓和碎栓已有許多成功的案例報(bào)道[48-54]。但這些技術(shù)如使用不當(dāng)可帶來(lái)較高的并發(fā)癥和病死率[47,55-56]。
4.2慢性血栓
4.2.1消化道出血的預(yù)防和治療對(duì)慢性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓患者主要是治療和預(yù)防門脈高壓產(chǎn)生的并發(fā)癥。最重要的并發(fā)癥是胃-食管或其他異位靜脈(如十二指腸或直腸靜脈)曲張破裂引起的消化道出血。約50%慢性門靜脈血栓患者在診斷時(shí)已發(fā)現(xiàn)靜脈曲張征象[24]。隨訪發(fā)現(xiàn),在非肝硬化非惡性腫瘤性門靜脈血栓患者中約30%發(fā)生消化道出血,而有肝硬化患者出血的發(fā)生率更高[14,39]。當(dāng)曲張靜脈超過(guò)5 mm時(shí)即應(yīng)考慮預(yù)防出血[57]。β受體阻滯劑和內(nèi)鏡曲張靜脈套扎均是預(yù)防首次出血的有效手段[58]。沒(méi)有證據(jù)顯示哪種方法更適用于門靜脈血栓患者,但用β受體阻滯劑更為經(jīng)濟(jì)。因此,β受體阻滯劑應(yīng)作為預(yù)防首次出血的方法;內(nèi)鏡套扎可用于不適合使用β受體阻滯劑的患者。當(dāng)預(yù)防措施失敗或曲張靜脈已破裂出血,內(nèi)鏡即成為主要的治療方法。急性出血的治療多偏向于內(nèi)鏡套扎,但也可用內(nèi)鏡硬化療法[44]。當(dāng)首次出血得到控制,即要考慮預(yù)防再次出血。對(duì)有門脈高壓患者仍可采用β受體阻滯劑和內(nèi)鏡套扎[59-60]。藥物和內(nèi)鏡聯(lián)合應(yīng)用對(duì)預(yù)防復(fù)發(fā)性靜脈曲張出血具有更好的效果[60]。當(dāng)這些治療均無(wú)效,對(duì)反復(fù)出血患者可做手術(shù)分流,多用遠(yuǎn)端脾-直腸靜脈分流[61]。其缺點(diǎn)是有較高的再出血發(fā)生率、其他致病率和病死率[62]。
4.2.2抗凝治療對(duì)慢性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓是否用抗凝治療存在不同意見(jiàn)。有人認(rèn)為高發(fā)的消化道出血是采用抗凝治療的障礙,不到30%的慢性門靜脈血栓患者適用抗凝治療[63]。但也有報(bào)道認(rèn)為,對(duì)慢性門靜脈血栓進(jìn)行選擇性抗凝治療可降低血栓復(fù)發(fā)的可能性,而且靜脈曲張出血的危險(xiǎn)不增加甚至降低,尤其對(duì)無(wú)肝硬化患者有較好的療效和安全性[14,45,64]。Amitrano等[65]對(duì)28例伴肝硬化的門靜脈血栓患者用低分子量肝素進(jìn)行抗凝治療,發(fā)現(xiàn)6個(gè)月后33.3%患者獲得門靜脈完全再通,50%部分再通,沒(méi)有患者因嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥而終止治療。這些結(jié)果提示抗凝治療對(duì)伴有肝硬化的門靜脈血栓仍安全有效[65]。根據(jù)美國(guó)肝病研究學(xué)會(huì)(ASSLD)發(fā)布的指南提議對(duì)無(wú)肝硬化并有永久性血栓危險(xiǎn)的患者,如果沒(méi)有明確禁忌證并且食管靜脈曲張獲得了適當(dāng)?shù)闹委?,可考慮長(zhǎng)期抗凝[4,42],但支持該提議的證據(jù)不足。目前認(rèn)為抗凝對(duì)治療慢性門靜脈血栓應(yīng)進(jìn)行個(gè)體化考慮。
4.2.3經(jīng)門靜脈介入治療當(dāng)前最為常用且有效的介入方法是經(jīng)頸內(nèi)靜脈行肝內(nèi)門-體靜脈分流術(shù)(TIPS)。TIPS用于慢性門靜脈血栓的最初目的是防治門脈高壓引起的并發(fā)癥,常用于治療急性上消化道出血和預(yù)防再出血[65]。在門靜脈血栓患者體內(nèi)建立門體分流道可為門脈系統(tǒng)提供一個(gè)低阻力的流出道,這樣能有效降低門脈壓力、顯著改善門脈系統(tǒng)的血流淤滯狀態(tài)。早期TIPS只是作為急性出血時(shí)藥物和內(nèi)鏡治療無(wú)效后的一種搶救措施,主要原因是TIPS可能引起較高的肝性腦病發(fā)生率和病死率[66]。Garcia-Pagan等[67]通過(guò)隨機(jī)對(duì)照試驗(yàn)發(fā)現(xiàn),TIPS對(duì)肝硬化引起的急性上消化道出血的止血效果明顯優(yōu)于藥物和內(nèi)鏡套扎,失敗率和病死率均明顯降低。這表示TIPS完全可以用于早期治療門脈高壓引起的急性上消化道出血[67]。此外,TIPS也用于對(duì)頑固性腹水的治療[66]。
除了減輕門脈高壓引起的并發(fā)癥,恢復(fù)阻塞靜脈血流是治療門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的另一個(gè)重要目的。由于肝內(nèi)門靜脈完全閉塞,門脈海綿樣變或肝硬化導(dǎo)致的嚴(yán)重肝萎縮和肝裂增寬均可增加建立肝內(nèi)門腔分流的難度,導(dǎo)致較高的手術(shù)失敗率[66,68]。因此慢性門靜脈血栓曾被列為TIPS治療的相對(duì)禁忌證,只能對(duì)少數(shù)選擇性患者進(jìn)行嘗試[24,29,66]。但近年來(lái)介入性分流技術(shù)取得了很大的進(jìn)步,包括合理采用經(jīng)皮穿肝輔助、經(jīng)脾靜脈聯(lián)合TIPS、傳統(tǒng)與逆行TIPS及DIPS等[69]。有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的操作者進(jìn)行介入性分流術(shù)成功率幾近100%(>98%)[70]。同時(shí)這些介入性分流術(shù)還有其他一系列優(yōu)點(diǎn)[71-74]:①為在門靜脈系統(tǒng)使用較大直徑的球囊、鞘和血栓切割裝置提供了安全的入路;②輸藥導(dǎo)管能精確置入栓塞靜脈,使局部溶栓成為現(xiàn)實(shí);③自膨式聚四氟乙烯(ePTFE)涂層支架的應(yīng)用使支架長(zhǎng)期通暢率得到明顯提高。隨著手術(shù)技術(shù)和支架設(shè)計(jì)的進(jìn)步,TIPS治療慢性門靜脈血栓的成功率也不斷提高。目前TIPS用于治療慢性門靜脈血栓的可行性已得到肯定,即使對(duì)伴有海綿樣變的門靜脈血栓也有效[70-71,74-76]。我國(guó)專家在這一領(lǐng)域同樣做出了重大貢獻(xiàn)[71,77-82]。TIPS對(duì)血栓的處理可采用球囊擴(kuò)張、分流支架植入、血管內(nèi)溶栓和碎栓等手段,使血流獲得再通,以降低門脈高壓并發(fā)癥及血栓進(jìn)入脾靜脈和腸系膜上靜脈的危險(xiǎn)性[51,53,72-73,81-84]。賀辰龍等[85]對(duì)21例門靜脈血栓患者實(shí)施經(jīng)頸靜脈途徑門靜脈內(nèi)置管藥物溶栓和(或)機(jī)械性碎栓抽吸清除血栓,并對(duì)殘存狹窄進(jìn)行球囊擴(kuò)張及植入內(nèi)支架,85.7%患者獲得門脈再通(18/21)。這些治療方法可根據(jù)不同病情分別或聯(lián)合應(yīng)用,以期獲得更好的療效并降低并發(fā)癥和病死率。
門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓可由局部或全身因素造成,局部因素如肝硬化等在門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓形成中占重要位置,但是對(duì)于這些患者是否合并全身因素仍然有待進(jìn)一步研究。目前將門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓按癥狀出現(xiàn)時(shí)間或是否伴有門脈海綿樣變分為急性和慢性兩類。然而癥狀出現(xiàn)的時(shí)間并不等同于血栓形成的時(shí)間,血栓形成(尤其是部分血栓)后較長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間內(nèi)可能不出現(xiàn)癥狀。因此進(jìn)一步研究如何對(duì)門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓進(jìn)行合理分類以便相應(yīng)提供依據(jù)顯得至關(guān)重要。對(duì)于所有急性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓形成的患者只要沒(méi)有明確的禁忌證均需進(jìn)行抗凝治療,而慢性門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的患者的抗凝治療則應(yīng)進(jìn)行個(gè)體化考慮,尤其是合并肝硬化的患者。門靜脈系統(tǒng)血栓的介入治療在血管再通、減輕門脈高壓引起的并發(fā)癥以及恢復(fù)阻塞靜脈血流方面起到很大作用,但由于目前尚缺乏廣泛被接受的介入治療PVT的指南,進(jìn)一步前瞻性隨機(jī)對(duì)照研究仍值得開(kāi)展。
[1]Hall TC,Garcea G,Metcalfe M,et al.Management of acute noncirrhotic and non-malignant portal vein thrombosis:a systematic review[J].World J Surg,2011,35:2510-2520.
[2]James AW,Rabl C,Westphalen AC,et al.Portomesenteric venousthrombosisafterlaparoscopicsurgery:asystematic literature review[J].Arch Surg,2009,144:520-526.
[3]Ogren M,Bergqvist D,Bj?rck M,et al.Portal vein thrombosis: prevalence,patient characteristics and lifetime risk:a population study based on 23,796 consecutive autopsies[J].WorldJ Gastroenterol,2006,12:2115-2119.
[4]Handa P,Crowther M,Douketis JD.Portal vein thrombosis:a Clinician-Oriented and practical review[J].Clin Appl Thromb Hemost,2013,20:498-506.
[5]Valla D,Casadevall N,Huisse MG,et al.Etiology of portal vein thrombosisinadults.Aprospectiveevaluationofprimary myeloproliferative disorders[J].Gastroenterology,1988,94:1063-1069.
[6]Amitrano L,Guardascione MA,Brancaccio V,et al.Risk factors and clinical presentation of portal vein thrombosis in patients with liver cirrhosis[J].J Hepatol,2004,40:736-741.
[7]Condat B,Pessione F,Helene Denninger M,et al.Recent portal or mesenteric venous thrombosis:increased recognition and frequent recanalization on anticoagulant therapy[J].Hepatology,2000,32:466-470.
[8]Belli L,Romani F,Sansalone CV,et al.Portal thrombosis in cirrhotics.A retrospective analysis[J].Ann Surg,1986,203:286-291.
[9]Nonami T,Yokoyama I,Iwatsuki S,et al.The incidence of portal vein thrombosis at liver transplantation[J].Hepatology,1992,16: 1195-1198.
[10]Pirisi M,Avellini C,F(xiàn)abris C,et al.Portal vein thrombosis in hepatocellular carcinoma:age and sex distribution in an autopsy study[J].J Cancer Res Clin Oncol,1998,124:397-400.
[11]Arora NK,Lodha R,Gulati S,et al.Portal hypertension in North Indian children[J].Indian J Pediatr,2000,65:585-591.
[12]Denninger MH,Cha?t Y,Casadevall N,et al.Cause of portal or hepatic venous thrombosis inadults:theroleofmultiple concurrent factors[J].Hepatology,2000,31:587-591.
[13]VallaDC,CondatB.Portalveinthrombosisinadults: pathophysiology,pathogenesis and management[J].J Hepatol,2000,32:865-871.
[14]Condat B,Pessione F,Hillaire S,et al.Current outcome of portal vein thrombosis in adults:risk and benefit of anticoagulant therapy[J].Gastroenterology,2001,120:490-497.
[15]Battistelli S,Coratti F,Gori T.Porto-spleno-mesenteric venous thrombosis[J].Int Angiol,2011,30:1-11.
[16]Ponziani FR,Zocco MA,Campanale C,et al.Portal vein thrombosis:insight into physiopathology,diagnosis,and treatment[J].World J Gastroenterol,2010,16:143-155.
[17]Parikh S,Shah R,Kapoor P.Portal vein thrombosis[J].Am J Med,2010,123:111-119.
[18]Janssen HL,Wijnhoud A,Haagsma EB,et al.Extrahepatic portal vein thrombosis:aetiology and determinants of survival[J].Gut,2001,49:720-724.
[19]Yerdel MA,Gunson B,Mirza D,et al.Portal vein thrombosis in adults undergoing liver transplantation:risk factors,screening,management,and outcome[J].Transplantation,2000,69:1873-1881.
[20]Janssen HL,Meinardi JR,Vleggaar FP,et al.FactorⅤleiden mutation,prothrombingenemutation,anddeficienciesin coagulation inhibitors associated with Budd-Chiari syndrome and portal vein thrombosis:results of a case-control study[J].Blood,2000,96:2364-2368.
[21]Primignani M,Martinelli I,Bucciarelli P,et al.Risk factors for thrombophilia in extrahepatic portal vein obstruction[J].Hepatology,2005,41:603-608.
[22]De Stefano V,Teofili L,Leone G,et al.Spontaneous erythroid colony formation as the Clue to an underlying myeloproliferative disorder in patients with Budd-Chiari syndrome or portal vein thrombosis[J].Semin Thromb Hemost,1997,23:411-418.
[23]Dentali F,Galli M,Gianni M,et al.Inherited thrombophilic abnormalities and risk of portal vein thrombosis.a meta-analysis[J].Thromb Haemost,2008,99:675-682.
[24]Hoekstra J,Janssen HL.Vascular liver disorders(Ⅱ):portal vein thrombosis[J].Neth J Med,2009,67:46-53.
[25]Fisher NC,Wilde JT,Roper J,et al.Deficiency of natural anticoagulant proteins C,S,and antithrombin in portal vein thrombosis:a secondary phenomenon?[J].Gut,2000,46:534-539.
[26]Chawla Y,Duseja A,Dhiman RK.Review article:the modern management of portal vein thrombosis[J].Aliment Pharmacol Ther,2009,30:881-894.
[27]Chaffanjon PC,Brichon PY,Ranchoup Y,et al.Portal vein thrombosisfollowingsplenectomyforhematologicdisease: prospective study with Doppler color flow imaging[J].World J Surg,1998,22:1082-1086.
[28]Malkowski P,Pawlak J,Michalowicz B,et al.Thrombolytic treatment of portal thrombosis[J].Hepatogastroenterology,2003,50:2098-2100.
[29]Valla DC.Portal vein thrombosis[A].In:Deleve LD,Garcia-Tsao G,eds.Vascular liver disease:Mechanisms and management[M]. New York,Dordrecht Heidelberg,London:Springer Science+ Bussiness Media,2011:183-196.
[30]Amitrano L,Guardascione MA,Scaglione M,et al.Prognostic factors in noncirrhotic patients with splanchnic vein thromboses[J].Am J Gastroenterol,2007,102:2464-2470.
[31]Kumar S,Sarr MG,Kamath PS.Mesenteric venous thrombosis[J].N Engl J Med,2001,345:1683-1688.
[32]Tessler FN,Gehring BJ,Gomes AS,et al.Diagnosis of portal vein thrombosis:value of color Doppler imaging[J].AJR Am J Roentgenol,1991,157:293-296.
[33]Danila M,Sporea I,Popescu A,et al.The value of contrast enhanced ultrasound in the evaluation of the Nature of portal vein thrombosis[J].Med Ultrason,2011,13:102-107.
[34]Duran R,Denys AL,Letovanec I,et al.Multidetector CT features of mesenteric vein thrombosis[J].Radiographics,2012,32:1503-1522.
[35]Shah TU,Semelka RC,Voultsinos V,et al.Accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging for preoperative detection of portal vein thrombosis in liver transplant candidates[J].Liver Transpl,2006,12:1682-1688.
[36]Ueno N,Sasaki A,Tomiyama T,et al.Color doppler ultrasonography in the diagnosis of cavernous transformation of the portal vein[J].J Clin Ultrasound,1997,25:227-233.
[37]De Gaetano AM,Lafortune M,Patriquin H,et al.Cavernous transformation of the portal vein:patterns of intrahepatic and splanchniccollateralcirculationdetectedwithDoppler sonography[J].AJR Am J Roentgenol,1995,165:1151-1155.
[38]Ohnishi K,Okuda K,Ohtsuki T,et al.Formation of hilar collateralsorcavernoustransformationafterportalvein obstruction by hepatocellular carcinoma.Observations in ten patients[J].Gastroenterology,1984,87:1150-1153.
[39]Sogaard KK,Astrup LB,Vilstrup H,Gronbaek H.Portal vein thrombosis;risk factors,clinical presentation and treatment[J]. BMC Gastroenterol,2007;7:34.
[40]Chandra R,Kapoor D,Tharakan A,et al.Portal biliopathy[J].J Gastroenterol Hepatol,2001,16:1086-1092.
[41]Chait Y,Condat B,Cazals-Hatem D,et al.Relevance of the criteria commonly used to diagnose myeloproliferative disorder in patients with splanchnic vein thrombosis[J].Br J Haematol,2005,129:553-560.
[42]Deleve LD,Valla DC,Garcia-Tsao G.Vascular disorders of the liver[J].Hepatology,2009,49:1729-1764.
[43]Turnes J,Garcia-Pagan JC,Gonzalez M,et al.Portal hypertensionrelated complications after acute portal vein thrombosis:impact of early anticoagulation[J].Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol,2008,6: 1412-1417.
[44]de Franchis R.Evolving consensus in portal hypertension.Report of the BavenoⅣconsensus workshop on methodology of diagnosis and therapy in portal hypertension[J].J Hepatol,2005,43:167-176.
[45]Senzolo M,M Sartori T,Rossetto V,et al.Prospective evaluation of anticoagulation and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for the management of portal vein thrombosis in cirrhosis[J].Liver Int,2012,32:919-927.
[46]Plessier A,Darwish-Murad S,Hernandez-Guerra M,et al.Acute portal vein thrombosis unrelated to cirrhosis:a prospective multicenter follow-up study[J].Hepatology,2010,51:210-218.
[47]Hollingshead M,Burke CT,Mauro MA,et al.Transcatheter thrombolytictherapyforacutemesentericandportalvein thrombosis[J].J Vasc Interv Radiol,2005,16:651-661.
[48]Zhou W,Choi L,Lin PH,et al.Percutaneous transhepatic thrombectomy and pharmacologic thrombolysis of mesenteric venous thrombosis[J].Vascular,2007,15:41-45.
[49]Aytekin C,Boyvat F,Kurt A,et al.Catheter-directed thrombolysis with transjugular access in portal vein thrombosis secondary to pancreatitis[J].Eur J Radiol,2001,39:80-82.
[50]Ozkan U,Oguzkurt L,Tercan F,et al.Percutaneous transhepatic thrombolysis in the treatment of acute portal venous thrombosis[J].Diagn Interv Radiol,2006,12:105-107.
[51]Dumortier J,Walter T,Guillaud O,et al.Transcatheter local thrombolysis in patients with extensive TIPS thrombosis[J]. Gastroenterol Clin Biol,2010,34:721-725.
[52]AdaniGL,BaccaraniU,RisalitiA,etal.Percutaneous transhepatic portography for the treatment of early portal vein thrombosis after surgery[J].Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol,2007,30:1222-1226.
[53]Uflacker R.Applications of percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy in transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt and portal vein thrombosis[J].Tech Vasc Interv Radiol,2003,6:59-69.
[54]Lopera JE,Correa G,Brazzini A,et al.Percutaneous transhepatic treatment of symptomatic mesenteric venous thrombosis[J].J Vasc Surg,2002,36:1058-1061.
[55]Bilbao JI,Vivas I,Elduayen B,et al.Limitations of percutaneous techniquesinthetreatmentofportalveinthrombosis[J]. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol,1999,22:417-422.
[56]Gaba RC,Khiatani VL,Knuttinen MG,et al.Comprehensive review of TIPS technical complications and how to avoid them[J].AJR Am J Roentgenol,2011,196:675-685.
[57]Garcia-Tsao G,Sanyal AJ,Grace ND,et al.Prevention and management of gastroesophageal varices and variceal hemorrhage in cirrhosis[J].Hepatology,2007,46:922-938.
[58]Schepke M,Kleber G,Nürnberg D,et al.Ligation versus propranolol for the primary prophylaxis of variceal bleeding in cirrhosis[J].Hepatology,2004,40:65-72.
[59]Patch D,Sabin CA,Goulis J,et al.A randomized,controlled trial of medical therapy versus endoscopic ligation for the prevention of variceal rebleeding in patients with cirrhosis[J].Gastroenterology,2002,123:1013-1019.
[60]De La Pena J,Brullet E,Sanchez-Hernandez E,et al.Variceal ligation plus nadolol compared with ligation for prophylaxis of variceal rebleeding:a multicenter trial[J].Hepatology,2005,41: 572-578.
[61]Orloff MJ,Orloff MS,Girard B,et al.Bleeding esophagogastric varicesfromextrahepaticportalhypertension:40years' experience with portal-systemic shunt[J].J Am Coll Surg,2002,194:717-728.
[62]Warren WD,Henderson JM,Millikan WJ,et al.Management of variceal bleedinginpatientswithnoncirrhoticportalvein thrombosis[J].Ann Surg,1988,207:623-634.
[63]Webster GJ,Burroughs AK,Riordan SM.Review article:portal vein thrombosis—new insights into aetiology and management[J].Aliment Pharmacol Ther,2005,21:1-9.
[64]Kitchens CS,Weidner MH,Lottenberg R.Chronic oral anticoagulant therapy for extrahepatic visceral thrombosis is safe[J].J Thromb Thrombolysis,2007,23:223-228.
[65]Amitrano L,Guardascione MA,Menchise A,et al.Safety and efficacy of anticoagulation therapy with low molecular weight heparin for portal vein thrombosis in patients with liver cirrhosis[J].J Clin Gastroenterol,2010,44:448-451.
[66]Boyer TD,Haskal ZJ.The role of transjugular intrahepaticportosystemic shunt in the management of portal hypertension[J]. Hepatology,2005,41:386-400.
[67]Garcia-Pagan JC,Caca K,Bureau C,et al.Early use of TIPS in patients with cirrhosis and variceal bleeding[J].N Engl J Med,2010,362:2370-2379.
[68]Radosevich PM,Ring EJ,LaBerge JM,et al.Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts in patients with portal vein occlusion[J].Radiology,1993,186:523-527.
[69]韓國(guó)宏,孟祥杰,殷占新,等.經(jīng)皮脾靜脈途徑聯(lián)合TIPS治療伴海綿樣變性的門靜脈血栓[J].介入放射學(xué)雜志,2009,18:177-181.
[70]Bilbao JI,Quiroga J,Herrero JI,et al.Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt(TIPS):current status and future possibilities[J].Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol,2002,25:251-269.
[71]Luo J,Yan Z,Wang J,et al.Endovascular treatment for nonacute symptomaticportalvenousthrombosisthroughintrahepatic portosystemic shunt approach[J].J Vasc Interv Radiol,2011,22: 61-69.
[72]Blum U,Haag K,R?ssle M,et al.Noncavernomatous portal vein thrombosis in hepatic cirrhosis:treatment with transjugular intrahepaticportosystemicshuntandlocalthrombolysis[J]. Radiology,1995,195:153-157.
[73]Angermayr B,Cejna M,Koenig F,et al.Survival in patients undergoing transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt:ePTFE-covered stentgrafts versus bare stents[J].Hepatology,2003,38: 1043-1050.
[74]Bureau C,Pagan JC,Layrargues GP,et al.Patency of stents coveredwithpolytetrafluoroethyleneinpatientstreatedby transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts:long-term results of a randomized multicentre study[J].Liver Int,2007,27:742-747.
[75]SenzoloM,TibbalsJ,CholongitasE,etal.Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for portal vein thrombosis with and without cavernous transformation[J].Aliment Pharmacol Ther,2006,23:767-775.
[76]Luca A,Miraglia R,Caruso S,et al.Short-and long-term effects of the transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt on portal vein thrombosis in patients with cirrhosis[J].Gut,2011,60:846-852.
[77]Wils A,van der linden E,van Hoek B,et al.Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt in patients with chronic portal vein occlusion and cavernous transformation[J].J Clin Gastroenterol,2009,43:982-984.
[78]Chen L,Xiao T,Chen W,et al.Outcomes of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt through the left branch vs.the rightbranchoftheportalveininadvancedcirrhosis:a randomized trial[J].Liver Int,2009,29:1101-1109.
[79]Han G,Qi X,He C,et al.Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shuntforportalveinthrombosiswithsymptomaticportal hypertension in liver cirrhosis[J].J Hepatol,2011,54:78-88.
[80]Qi X,Han G,Yin Z,et al.Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for portal cavernoma with symptomatic portal hypertension in non-cirrhotic patients[J].Dig Dis Sci,2012,57:1072-1082.
[81]韓國(guó)宏,孟祥杰,殷占新,等.經(jīng)頸內(nèi)靜脈肝內(nèi)門腔分流術(shù)及聯(lián)合經(jīng)皮肝/脾穿刺途徑治療門靜脈血栓和(或)海綿樣變性[J].中華醫(yī)學(xué)雜志,2009,89:1549-1552.
[82]李說(shuō),顏志平,羅建均,等.經(jīng)TIPS途徑治療急性、亞急性門靜脈血栓臨床療效[J].介入放射學(xué)雜志,2009,18:581-583.
[83]方主亭,顏志平,羅劍鈞,等.門靜脈海綿樣變(CTPV)的介入治療[J].復(fù)旦學(xué)報(bào)·醫(yī)學(xué)版,2012,39:489-495.
[84]Perarnau JM,Baju A.D'alteroche L,et al.Feasibility and longterm evolution of TIPS in cirrhotic patients with portal thrombosis[J].Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol,2010,22:1093-1098.
[85]賀辰龍,崔進(jìn)國(guó),蘇秀琴,等.經(jīng)頸靜脈途徑介入治療門靜脈血栓[J].介入放射學(xué)雜志,2009,18:87-89.
Etiology and management of portal vein thrombosis:recent progress in research
MA Jing-qin,YANZhi-ping.Department of Interventional Radiology,Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital,F(xiàn)udan University,Shanghai 200032,China
YAN Zhi-ping,E-mail:yan.zhiping@zs-hospital.sh.cn
With the progress of imaging techniques,the diagnosis rate for portal vein thrombosis(PVT),that is used to be considered as a rare disease,has been rapidly increasing.PVT can be caused by systemic reasons such as various thrombophilic risk factors as well as a lot of local reasons such as cirrhosis,abdominal trauma and infection,malignant tumor,etc.At present,PVT is classified into acute and chronic entities based on the duration of clinical symptoms as well as on the presence or absence of portal cavernous transformation.The clinical manifestations and the treatment principles of the acute and chronic PVT are quite different.For acute PVT,the principle of treatment is to reopen the obstructed portal vein and to prevent the thrombus from entering into the superior mesenteric vein,while for chronic PVT the principle of treatment is focused on the management of the complications due to portal hypertension.The interventional management of portal thrombus plays an important role in reopening portal vein,reducing complications caused by portal hypertension,and restoring portal blood flow,etc.This paper aims to make a comprehensive review about the etiology and management of portal vein thrombosis.(J Intervent Radiol,2015,24:362-368)
portal vein thrombosis;etiology;clinical manifestation;anticoagulation therapy;interventional treatment
R735.7
A
1008-794X(2015)-04-0362-07
2014-06-23)
(本文編輯:李欣)
10.3969/j.issn.1008-794X.2015.04.021
200032上海復(fù)旦大學(xué)附屬中山醫(yī)院介入治療科
顏志平E-mail:yan.zhiping@zs-hospital.sh.cn