By Colleen Gillard
If Harry Potter and Huckleberry Finn were each to represent British versus American childrens literature, a curious dynamic would emerge: In a literary duel for the hearts and minds of children, one is a wizard-in-training at a boarding school in the Scottish Highlands, while the other is a barefoot boy drifting down the Mississippi, beset by con artists,1 slave hunters, and thieves. One defeats evil with a wand, the other takes to a raft to right a social wrong. Both orphans took over the world of English-language childrens literature, but their stories unfold in noticeably different ways.
The small island of Great Britain is an undisputed powerhouse of childrens bestsellers: The Wind in the Willows, Alice in Wonderland, Winnie-the-Pooh, Peter Pan, The Hobbit, James and the Giant Peach, Harry Potter, and The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.2 Significantly, all are fantasies. Meanwhile, the United States, also a major player in the field of childrens classics, deals much less in magic. Stories like Little House in the Big Woods, The Call of the Wild, Charlottes Web, The Yearling, Little Women, and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer are more notable for their realistic portraits of day-to-day life in the towns and farmlands on the growing frontier.3 If British children gathered in the glow of the kitchen hearth to hear stories about magic swords and talking bears, American children sat at their mothers knee listening to tales larded with moral messages about a world where life was hard, obedience emphasized, and Christian morality valued. Each style has its virtues, but the British approach undoubtedly yields the kinds of stories that appeal to the furthest reaches of childrens imagination.
It all goes back to each countrys distinct cultural heritage. For one, the British have always been in touch with their pagan4 folklore, says Maria Tatar, a Harvard professor of childrens literature and folklore. After all, the countrys very origin story is about a young king tutored by a wizard. Legends have always been embraced as history, from Merlin to Macbeth. “Even as Brits were digging into these enchanted worlds, Americans, much more pragmatic, always viewed their soil as something to exploit,” says Tatar. Americans are defined by a Protestant work ethic that can still be heard in stories like Pollyanna or The Little Engine That Could.
Americans write fantasies too, but nothing like the British, says Jerry Griswold, a San Diego State University emeritus professor of childrens literature. “American stories are rooted in realism; even our fantasies are rooted in realism,” he said, pointing to Dorothy who unmasks the great and powerful Wizard of Oz as a charlatan5.
American fantasies differ in another way: They usually end with a moral lesson learned—such as, surprisingly, in the zany works by Dr. Seuss who has Horton the elephant intoning:6 “A persons a person no matter how small,”and, “I meant what I said, and I said what I meant. An elephants faithful one hundred percent.” Even The Cat in the Hat restores order from chaos just before mother gets home. In Oz, Dorothys Technicolor quest ends with the realization: “Theres no place like home.” And Max in Where the Wild Things Are atones for the “wild rumpus”of his temper tantrum by calming down and sailing home.7
Landscape matters: Britains antique countryside, strewn with moldering8 castles and cozy farms, lends itself to fairy-tale invention. As Tatar puts it, the British are tuned in to the charm of their pastoral fields: “Think about Beatrix Potter talking to bunnies in the hedgerows, or A. A. Milnes Winnie-the-Pooh wandering the Hundred Acre Wood.”9 Not for nothing, J. K. Rowling set Harry Potters Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry in the spooky wilds of the Scottish Highlands. Lewis Carroll drew on the ancient stonewalled gardens, sleepy rivers, and hidden hallways of Oxford University to breathe life into the whimsical prose of Alice in Wonderland.10
Americas mighty vistas, by contrast, are less cozy, less human-scaled, and less haunted. The characters that populate its purple mountain majesties and fruited plains are decidedly real: Theres the burro Brighty of the Grand Canyon, the Boston cop who stops traffic in Make Way for Ducklings, and the mail-order bride in Sarah, Plain and Tall who brings love to lonely children on a Midwestern farm. No dragons, wands, or Mary Poppins umbrellas here.
Britains pagan religions and the stories that form their liturgy11 never really disappeared, the literature professor Meg Bateman said in an interview on the Isle of Skye in the Scottish Highlands. Pagan Britain, Scotland in particular, survived the march of Christianity far longer than the rest of Europe. Monotheism had a harder time making inroads into Great Britain despite how quickly it swept away the continents nature religions, says Bateman. Isolated behind Hadrians Wall—built by the Romans to stem raids by the Northern barbarian hordes—Scotland endured as a place where pagan beliefs persisted; beliefs brewed from the religious cauldron12 of folklore donated by successive invasions of Picts, Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Vikings.
Even well into the 19th and even 20th centuries, many believed they could be whisked away to a parallel universe. Shape shifters have long haunted the castles of clans claiming seals and bears as ancestors. “Gaelic culture teaches we neednt fear the dark side,” Bateman says. Death is neither “a portal to heaven nor hell, but instead a continued life on earth where spirits are released to shadow the living.” A tear in this fabric is all it takes for a story to begin. Think Harry Potter, The Chronicles of Narnia, The Dark Is Rising, Peter Pan, The Golden Compass—all of which feature parallel worlds.
These were beliefs the Puritans firmly rejected as they fled Great Britain and religious persecution for the New Worlds rocky shores. America is peculiar in its lack of indigenous folklore, Harvards Tatar says. Though African slaves brought folktales to Southern plantations, and Native Americans had a long tradition of mythology, little remains today of these rich worlds other than in small collections of Native American stories or the devalued vernacular of Uncle Remus, Uncle Tom, and the slave Jim in Huckleberry Finn.
Popular storytelling in the New World instead tended to celebrate in words and song the largerthan-life exploits of ordinary men and women: Daniel Boone, Davy Crockett, Calamity Jane, even a mule named Sal on the Erie Canal.13 Out of bragging contests in logging and mining camps came even greater exaggerations—Tall Tales—about the giant lumberjack Paul Bunyan, the twister-riding cowboy Pecos Bill, and that steel-driving man John Henry, who, born a slave, died with a hammer in his hand. All of these characters embodied the American promise: They earned their fame.
British children may read about royal destiny discovered when a young King Arthur pulls a sword from a stone. But immigrants to America who came to escape such unearned birthrights are much more interested in challenges to aristocracy, says Griswold. He points to Mark Twains The Prince and the Pauper, which reveals the two boys to be interchangeable: “We question castles here.”
如果哈利·波特和哈克貝利·費(fèi)恩分別代表了英國(guó)和美國(guó)的兒童文學(xué),一種令人玩味的動(dòng)態(tài)情況就出現(xiàn)了:在一場(chǎng)贏得兒童心靈與思想的文學(xué)對(duì)決中,一個(gè)是在蘇格蘭高地一所寄宿學(xué)校里學(xué)習(xí)的巫師,而另一個(gè)則是順著密西西比河漂流而下,被騙子、奴隸販子和盜賊侵?jǐn)_的赤腳男孩。一個(gè)用魔杖戰(zhàn)勝邪惡,另一個(gè)則乘著木筏糾正社會(huì)問(wèn)題。兩個(gè)孤兒都征服了英語(yǔ)兒童文學(xué)的世界,但他們的故事卻是以截然不同的方式展現(xiàn)的。
大不列顛這座小島毫無(wú)疑問(wèn)是兒童暢銷(xiāo)書(shū)的一大來(lái)源地,如《柳林風(fēng)聲》、《愛(ài)麗絲漫游奇境記》、《小熊維尼》、《彼得·潘》、《霍比特人》、《詹姆斯與大仙桃》、《哈利·波特》和《獅子、女巫與魔衣櫥》。重要的是,所有這些都是幻想類(lèi)作品。相比之下,在同樣作為兒童文學(xué)經(jīng)典主要來(lái)源地的美國(guó),涉及魔幻題材的作品則少得多。像《大森林里的小木屋》、《野性的呼喚》、《夏洛的網(wǎng)》、《鹿苑長(zhǎng)春》、《小婦人》和《湯姆·索亞歷險(xiǎn)記》之類(lèi)的作品因其對(duì)拓荒邊界上的城鎮(zhèn)與農(nóng)田的日常生活的寫(xiě)實(shí)描述而更為人所知。如果說(shuō)英國(guó)的孩子是聚在廚房壁爐前的光亮中聽(tīng)魔劍和會(huì)說(shuō)話(huà)的熊的故事,那么美國(guó)的孩子則是坐在母親的膝旁,聽(tīng)充斥著道德信息的故事,故事中的世界生活艱苦,強(qiáng)調(diào)服從,推崇基督教的道德。兩種風(fēng)格各有優(yōu)點(diǎn),但英國(guó)的風(fēng)格無(wú)疑創(chuàng)造出了能夠滿(mǎn)足孩子無(wú)邊想象力的作品。
這一切都可以追溯到兩國(guó)獨(dú)特的文化遺產(chǎn)。比如說(shuō),哈佛大學(xué)兒童文學(xué)與民俗學(xué)教授瑪麗亞·塔塔爾認(rèn)為,英國(guó)人一直與他們的異教民俗保持著千絲萬(wàn)縷的聯(lián)系。畢竟,英國(guó)的起源故事就是關(guān)于一位由巫師指導(dǎo)的年輕國(guó)王。從梅林到麥克白,傳說(shuō)一直被視為歷史。塔塔爾說(shuō):“在英國(guó)人挖掘這些魔法世界的同時(shí),更為務(wù)實(shí)的美國(guó)人則總是將自己的鄉(xiāng)土視為可以開(kāi)采的東西?!泵绹?guó)人為新教徒的工作道德所定義,這種道德在諸如《波麗安娜》或《小火車(chē)頭做到了》等故事中仍然可以讀到。
圣地亞哥州立大學(xué)兒童文學(xué)榮譽(yù)教授杰里·格里斯沃爾德認(rèn)為,美國(guó)人也寫(xiě)幻想作品,但和英國(guó)人的不一樣?!懊绹?guó)的故事植根于現(xiàn)實(shí)主義;甚至連我們的幻想都植根于現(xiàn)實(shí)主義?!彼f(shuō)道,并舉了《綠野仙蹤》的例子,故事中的多蘿西發(fā)現(xiàn)法力無(wú)邊的魔法師其實(shí)只是個(gè)騙子。
美國(guó)的幻想作品有所不同:它們通常以道德上的教訓(xùn)作為結(jié)尾。比如,令人驚訝的是,在蘇斯博士的那些古怪可笑的作品中,大象霍頓莊重地表示:“人無(wú)論多么渺小也都是人。”以及“我想說(shuō)的就是我所說(shuō)的,我所說(shuō)的就是我想說(shuō)的。大象是百分百忠實(shí)的?!鄙踔猎趮寢尰丶抑?,《戴帽子的貓》也從混亂中恢復(fù)了秩序。在特藝彩色制片的《綠野仙蹤》中,多蘿西在旅程結(jié)束之際意識(shí)到:“沒(méi)有一個(gè)地方可以和家相提并論?!薄兑矮F家園》中馬克斯為自己大發(fā)脾氣和“野獸鬧騰”感到后悔,最終平靜下來(lái)并返航回家。
風(fēng)景很重要:英國(guó)古老的鄉(xiāng)村布滿(mǎn)了殘破的城堡和怡人的農(nóng)場(chǎng),對(duì)于童話(huà)創(chuàng)作而言再合適不過(guò)了。正如塔塔爾所說(shuō),英國(guó)人陶醉于他們田園風(fēng)光的魅力:“想想比阿特麗克斯·波特同樹(shù)籬邊的兔子說(shuō)話(huà),又或者A. A. 米爾恩的小熊維尼在百畝森林中游蕩。”J. K. 羅琳將《哈利·波特》中的霍格沃茨魔法學(xué)校設(shè)定在蘇格蘭高地的陰森荒野不是沒(méi)有原因的。劉易斯·卡羅爾從牛津大學(xué)那古老的被石墻所環(huán)繞的花園、冷清寂寥的河流和隱蔽神秘的走廊中汲取靈感,為《愛(ài)麗絲漫游奇境記》中異想天開(kāi)的文字注入了生命。
相比之下,美國(guó)廣袤的風(fēng)景沒(méi)有那么怡人,沒(méi)怎么經(jīng)過(guò)人的改造,也鮮有鬧鬼的跡象。那些居住在壯麗的紫色山巒和結(jié)滿(mǎn)果實(shí)的平原的人物絕對(duì)是真實(shí)的:《大峽谷的布萊迪》中的小驢,《讓路給小鴨子》中攔下車(chē)流的波士頓警察,《又丑又高的莎拉》里通過(guò)征婚廣告來(lái)到家里的新娘,她給一座中西部農(nóng)場(chǎng)里孤獨(dú)的孩子們帶來(lái)了愛(ài)。這里沒(méi)有龍,沒(méi)有魔杖,也沒(méi)有魔法保姆瑪麗·波平斯的雨傘。
文學(xué)教授梅格·貝特曼在蘇格蘭高地的斯凱島接受采訪時(shí)說(shuō),英國(guó)的異教和構(gòu)成他們禮拜儀式的故事從未真正消失過(guò)。異教的英國(guó),尤其是蘇格蘭地區(qū),在基督教的征服中留存下來(lái)的時(shí)間比歐洲其他地方更長(zhǎng)。貝特曼說(shuō),盡管一神論很快掃蕩了歐洲大陸的自然宗教,但是卻沒(méi)有那么容易進(jìn)入到大不列顛。蘇格蘭被哈德良長(zhǎng)城(由羅馬人建造,以阻止北方蠻族的襲擊)所隔開(kāi),從而一直是異教信仰持續(xù)存在的地方。這些信仰雜糅、發(fā)酵自先后入侵的皮克特人、凱爾特人、羅馬人、盎格魯-撒克遜人和維京人的宗教民俗。
甚至到了19世紀(jì)乃至20世紀(jì),許多人都還相信自己可以被帶到一個(gè)平行宇宙中去。變形者長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)一直盤(pán)踞在將海豹和熊認(rèn)作祖先的氏族的城堡中。貝特曼說(shuō):“蓋爾文化教會(huì)我們不必害怕黑暗?!彼劳霾皇恰巴ㄏ蛱焯没虻鬲z的大門(mén),而是在人世間延續(xù)的一種生命,靈魂被釋放以籠罩生者?!币_(kāi)啟一個(gè)故事,發(fā)現(xiàn)平行世界的一個(gè)入口就足夠了。想想《哈利·波特》、《納尼亞傳奇》、《黑暗崛起》、《彼得·潘》和《黃金羅盤(pán)》,所有這些作品都是寫(xiě)平行世界的。
而這些信仰是清教徒們堅(jiān)決不予接受的。他們從大不列顛和宗教迫害中逃出,來(lái)到了新大陸巖石遍布的海岸。哈佛大學(xué)教授塔塔爾說(shuō),美國(guó)特別缺乏本土民俗。盡管非洲奴隸將民間故事帶到了南部種植園,而且原住民有著悠久的神話(huà)傳統(tǒng),但如今除了有少數(shù)留存在原住民的故事里,或是遺留在雷穆斯叔叔、湯姆叔叔和《哈克貝利·費(fèi)恩歷險(xiǎn)記》中黑奴吉姆的不被看重的方言里之外,幾乎沒(méi)有什么關(guān)于這些豐富世界的記錄留下。
新世界的流行敘事傾向于用言語(yǔ)和歌曲來(lái)贊頌普通男女的豐功偉績(jī):丹尼爾·布恩、戴維·克羅克特、野姑娘杰恩,甚至是伊利運(yùn)河上一頭名為薩爾的騾子。由于人們常在伐木和采礦營(yíng)地舉行吹牛比賽,更加夸張的故事誕生了——即荒誕故事——比如伐木巨人保羅·班揚(yáng),駕馭龍卷風(fēng)的傳奇牛仔佩科斯·比爾和與機(jī)器比賽的鋼鉆工約翰·亨利(他生在一個(gè)奴隸家庭,死時(shí)手中還握著錘子)。所有這些人物都體現(xiàn)了美國(guó)的希望:他們?yōu)樽约黑A得了名聲。
而英國(guó)兒童讀到的可能都是關(guān)于皇室命運(yùn)的故事,比如年輕的亞瑟王從石頭中拔出寶劍。但是為了逃避這種與生俱來(lái)的權(quán)利而來(lái)到美國(guó)的移民則對(duì)挑戰(zhàn)貴族制更加感興趣,格里斯沃爾德如是說(shuō)。他指出,馬克·吐溫的《王子與乞丐》就揭示出兩個(gè)男孩是可以互換身份的:“我們這里是質(zhì)疑王權(quán)的?!?/p>
1. duel: 決斗;beset: 困擾,使苦惱;con artist: 騙子。
2. The Wind in the Willows:《柳林風(fēng)聲》,是英國(guó)作家肯尼斯·格雷厄姆創(chuàng)作的童話(huà),發(fā)表于1908年,主人公是身穿人類(lèi)服裝并且能說(shuō)會(huì)道的鼴鼠、河鼠、狗獾、蛤蟆和水獺;James and the Giant Peach:《詹姆斯與大仙桃》,出版于2009年,是羅爾德·達(dá)爾第一部?jī)和膶W(xué)成名作;The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe : 《獅子、女巫與魔衣櫥》,是《納尼亞傳奇》系列的第二部,作者是英國(guó)作家C. S. 劉易斯。
3. The Call of the Wild : 《野性的呼喚》,是美國(guó)作家杰克·倫敦創(chuàng)作的一部動(dòng)物小說(shuō),通過(guò)一只文明世界的狗在主人的逼迫下走向荒野的經(jīng)歷,反映了“優(yōu)勝劣汰,適者生存”的現(xiàn)實(shí)主題;The Yearling:《鹿苑長(zhǎng)春》,是美國(guó)作家羅琳斯創(chuàng)作的長(zhǎng)篇小說(shuō),通過(guò)小主人公裘弟和小鹿的故事,描寫(xiě)了美國(guó)南北戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)后佛羅里達(dá)州墾荒區(qū)普通人的勞動(dòng)和斗爭(zhēng);Little Women:《小婦人》,由美國(guó)女作家?jiàn)W爾科特創(chuàng)作,以四姐妹的生活瑣事為藍(lán)本,是一本強(qiáng)調(diào)女權(quán)意識(shí)的半自傳體小說(shuō)。
4. pagan: 非基督教的。
5. charlatan: 騙子,冒充內(nèi)行的人。
6. zany: 古怪的,滑稽可笑的;Dr. Seuss: 蘇斯博士(1904—1991),創(chuàng)作了許多教育繪本,是20世紀(jì)最卓越的兒童文學(xué)家、教育學(xué)家之一,戴帽子的貓、大象霍頓和鬼精靈(綠毛怪格林奇)等都是他筆下的經(jīng)典形象。
7. atone: 彌補(bǔ),補(bǔ)償;rumpus: 喧鬧,騷亂;temper tantrum: 大發(fā)脾氣。
8. molder: 腐朽。
9. Beatrix Potter: 比阿特麗克斯·波特(1866—1943),英國(guó)童話(huà)作家,彼得兔、湯姆小貓等都是她筆下的著名童話(huà)形象;A. A. Milne: 艾倫·亞歷山大·米爾恩(1882— 1956),英國(guó)著名劇作家、小說(shuō)家、童話(huà)作家。
10. Lewis Carroll: 劉易斯·卡羅爾(1832—1898),英國(guó)數(shù)學(xué)家、邏輯學(xué)家、童話(huà)作家,代表作有《愛(ài)麗絲漫游奇境記》《愛(ài)麗絲鏡中奇遇記》;whimsical: 怪異的。
11. liturgy: 禮拜儀式。
12. cauldron: 大鍋。
13. Daniel Boone: 丹尼爾·布恩(1734—1840),美國(guó)肯塔基州墾荒先驅(qū);Davy Crockett: 戴維·克羅克特(1786—1836),美國(guó)政治家和戰(zhàn)斗英雄,在得克薩斯獨(dú)立運(yùn)動(dòng)的阿拉莫戰(zhàn)役中犧牲;Calamity Jane: 野姑娘杰恩,是一個(gè)喜愛(ài)懲奸除惡的牛仔女,出自1953年的一部同名電影;Sal: 騾子薩爾,出自一首名為《伊利運(yùn)河》(The Erie Canal)的歌。伊利運(yùn)河歷時(shí)八年建造,是美國(guó)的第一條國(guó)家水道。運(yùn)河上的駁船在運(yùn)載物資時(shí),騾和馬會(huì)在岸上用繩索拉著駁船在運(yùn)河中前行。