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小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在腦白質(zhì)損傷發(fā)生發(fā)展中的作用

2020-12-14 04:16徐曼曼晁斌崔翰明
關(guān)鍵詞:脫髓鞘

徐曼曼 晁斌 崔翰明

[摘要] 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞廣泛分布于中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng),是其固有的免疫細(xì)胞,其介導(dǎo)的神經(jīng)炎癥是引發(fā)腦白質(zhì)損傷的重要因素。越來(lái)越多證據(jù)表明,不同腦白質(zhì)損傷疾病中小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞激活的路徑各有差異,這是其在中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)發(fā)揮復(fù)雜作用的基礎(chǔ)。腦白質(zhì)損傷的典型表現(xiàn)就是脫髓鞘,脫髓鞘存在于包括多發(fā)性硬化癥、阿爾茨海默病、血管性認(rèn)知障礙和癡呆等在內(nèi)的多種疾病的共同病理階段中。本文探討了多種疾病類(lèi)型及所在不同大腦區(qū)域下,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞通過(guò)不同激活途徑發(fā)揮生物學(xué)作用的醫(yī)學(xué)機(jī)制。此外,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在腦白質(zhì)損傷中可發(fā)揮促炎和免疫調(diào)節(jié)的雙相作用,對(duì)這些小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞亞型的進(jìn)一步研究可能會(huì)衍生出新的治療方法,促進(jìn)腦白質(zhì)損傷的修復(fù)。

[關(guān)鍵詞] 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞;神經(jīng)炎癥;腦白質(zhì)損傷;脫髓鞘

[中圖分類(lèi)號(hào)] R742? ? ? ? ? [文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼] A? ? ? ? ? [文章編號(hào)] 1673-7210(2020)10(b)-0037-04

[Abstract] Microglia is widely distributed in the central nervous system and is the inherent immune cells. The nerve inflammation mediated by microglia is an important factor that cause white matter damage. More and more evidences show that the activation pathways of microglia in different white matter damage diseases are different, which is the basis of their complex role in the central nervous system. The typical manifestation of white matter damage is demyelination, which is a common pathological stage in multiple diseases including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer′s disease, vascular cognitive impairment and dementia. In this article, the medical mechanism for microglia playing biological role through different activation pathways under various disease types and different brain regions is discussed. In addition, microglia can play a biphasic role in brain white matter damage, such as proinflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, therefore further research on these microglial subtypes may lead to new treatments that promote the repair of white matter damage.

[Key words] Microglia; Nerve inflammation; White matter damage; Demyelination

小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞是中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)固有的免疫細(xì)胞和免疫監(jiān)視細(xì)胞,占中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)細(xì)胞的10%~15%,相當(dāng)于定居在腦和脊髓中的巨噬細(xì)胞。這些細(xì)胞通過(guò)檢查周?chē)h(huán)境損傷[損傷相關(guān)分子模式(DAMPs)]或感染指標(biāo)[病原體相關(guān)分子模式(PAMPs)]發(fā)揮作用,促進(jìn)腦穩(wěn)態(tài)[1]。當(dāng)發(fā)現(xiàn)異常時(shí),小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的吞噬作用迅速被激活,清除細(xì)胞碎片和死亡的神經(jīng)元。但是在此過(guò)程中,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞釋放的促炎分子也對(duì)中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)其他成分(包括神經(jīng)元和少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞)產(chǎn)生細(xì)胞毒性作用,進(jìn)而引發(fā)疾病[2]。然而相關(guān)研究報(bào)道了小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的保護(hù)作用,與傳統(tǒng)有害作用不同,其可促進(jìn)腦白質(zhì)中髓磷脂的再生[3]。因此,人們認(rèn)識(shí)到腦白質(zhì)損傷時(shí)神經(jīng)元疾病的病理狀態(tài)不同,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞所發(fā)揮的功能也不同。

腦白質(zhì)主要包括有髓神經(jīng)的軸突,其連接大腦各個(gè)區(qū)域的神經(jīng)元,在人類(lèi)大腦的近一半?yún)^(qū)域,腦白質(zhì)的髓鞘形成是認(rèn)知、記憶、運(yùn)動(dòng)和復(fù)雜技能發(fā)展所必需的[4]。因此,腦白質(zhì)的損害或異常會(huì)導(dǎo)致多種神經(jīng)元疾病,如多發(fā)性硬化癥(MS)[5]、阿爾茨海默病(AD)[6]、創(chuàng)傷性腦損傷(TBI)[7]、血管性認(rèn)知障礙和癡呆(VCID)[8]等。另外,腦白質(zhì)的結(jié)構(gòu)變化或髓磷脂基因的異常也是精神疾病的危險(xiǎn)因素[9],如抑郁癥、精神分裂癥和強(qiáng)迫癥。因此,腦白質(zhì)中的髓鞘形成對(duì)于腦功能的正常發(fā)育和維持至關(guān)重要。本文探討了腦白質(zhì)損傷期間小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的變化,重點(diǎn)了解這些變化如何影響疾病的進(jìn)展及針對(duì)于此的潛在療法,以便更好指導(dǎo)臨床。

1 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在腦白質(zhì)損傷中的激活途徑

1.1 經(jīng)典激活途徑

當(dāng)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞以經(jīng)典途徑在各種與腦白質(zhì)有關(guān)的疾病中被“激活”時(shí),可高表達(dá)促炎細(xì)胞因子,主要有組織相容性復(fù)合物Ⅱ(MHCⅡ)及其共刺激因子CD40和CD86(也稱(chēng)為B7-2),也是MS和AD中小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞激活的經(jīng)典標(biāo)志物[10]。在自身免疫性腦脊髓炎(EAE)的動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)中也觀察到了這一點(diǎn),隨著小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的增殖,CD45、MHCⅡ、CD40和CD86的表達(dá)也相應(yīng)增加[11]。同樣在缺血性癡呆模型中也觀察到類(lèi)似現(xiàn)象,結(jié)果顯示腦白質(zhì)中的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和巨噬細(xì)胞在灌注不足3 d時(shí)MHC-Ⅰ/Ⅱ或基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶2(MMP-2)的表達(dá)升高,提示腦灌注不足后小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞可被提前激活[12]。而肌肽(β-丙氨酰-L-組氨酸,一種在中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中高度表達(dá)的天然二肽)的治療可導(dǎo)致小鼠的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞失活,改善患者的認(rèn)知障礙和腦白質(zhì)病變[13]。以上研究觀察到小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的增殖及其激活主要發(fā)生在疾病早期,特別是在脫髓鞘的活性部位,而在疾病恢復(fù)后期未觀察到這些變化[14]。

1.2 其他激活途徑

小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的極化不是表型的單一變化,而是涉及空間和轉(zhuǎn)錄上不同亞群的動(dòng)態(tài)反應(yīng),可以根據(jù)疾病病理狀態(tài)和腦白質(zhì)區(qū)域的不同而發(fā)生改變。Locatelli等[15]利用EAE小鼠進(jìn)行實(shí)時(shí)體內(nèi)成像,觀察到小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和單核巨噬細(xì)胞的時(shí)空演化。他們的分子表達(dá)模式從誘導(dǎo)型一氧化氮合酶(NOS)等促炎標(biāo)志物轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榘ň彼崦冈趦?nèi)的免疫調(diào)節(jié)標(biāo)志物,提示小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞亞型可以根據(jù)EAE病變的病理狀態(tài)進(jìn)行自我調(diào)節(jié)。此外,Simpson等[16]研究了老年患者腦白質(zhì)病變的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞,發(fā)現(xiàn)腦室周?chē)∽冎斜磉_(dá)MHCⅡ、CD40和B7-2的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞明顯多于對(duì)照組或深部皮層下病變,但腦室周?chē)∽冎写嬖诘男∧z質(zhì)細(xì)胞形態(tài)呈分枝狀和活化狀,而皮層下病變中存在較多的變形蟲(chóng)和吞噬表型,反映小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞亞群激活途徑依據(jù)病變部位的不同發(fā)生改變[17]。

總而言之,根據(jù)疾病類(lèi)型及所在大腦區(qū)域,存在多種激活的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞亞群,他們有助于判斷與腦白質(zhì)有關(guān)的疾病處于何種階段。

2 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在腦白質(zhì)損傷中的雙相作用

2.1 促炎作用

經(jīng)典激活途徑中,活化的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞會(huì)分泌參與炎癥級(jí)聯(lián)反應(yīng)的促炎因子,促進(jìn)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病的脫髓鞘。脂多糖(LPS)激活的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞,極化至促炎狀態(tài),分泌腫瘤壞死因子α(TNF-α)和白細(xì)胞介素1β(IL-1β),均對(duì)少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞具有細(xì)胞毒性[18]。在大鼠原代少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)物中,TNF-α和雙環(huán)己酮草酰雙腙(cuprizone)的共同處理可導(dǎo)致其細(xì)胞生存能力顯著下降[19]。當(dāng)給予cuprizone的小鼠中通過(guò)米諾環(huán)素對(duì)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的激活進(jìn)行阻斷時(shí),脫髓鞘被阻止,反向證明小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞衍生因子對(duì)少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的毒性作用。此外,在大鼠細(xì)胞中觀察到小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生的一氧化氮(NO)與少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞死亡之間存在正相關(guān),提示NO誘導(dǎo)的損傷是少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的毒性機(jī)制[20]。以上均提示小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞釋放相關(guān)促炎介質(zhì)可加重腦白質(zhì)損傷。

2.2 免疫保護(hù)作用

另一方面,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在髓鞘再生階段具有保護(hù)作用。MS模型中髓磷脂受損后,在髓鞘再生期間對(duì)胼胝體中的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞進(jìn)行了全基因組基因表達(dá)分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)其表達(dá)了一系列細(xì)胞因子和趨化因子,比如趨化因子(CXCL10)、轉(zhuǎn)化生長(zhǎng)因子b1(Tgfb1)和血小板衍生生長(zhǎng)因子(Pdgfa、Pdgfb),這些因子可使少突膠質(zhì)前體細(xì)胞(OPC)聚集到病變部位并分化,促進(jìn)髓鞘再生[21]。還有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)缺血性損傷后小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞分泌轉(zhuǎn)化生長(zhǎng)因子α(TGF-α),體外實(shí)驗(yàn)證明對(duì)OPC和少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞有保護(hù)作用,可能在體內(nèi)有助于腦白質(zhì)的修復(fù)[22]。然而,先前發(fā)現(xiàn)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞分泌的TNF-α和IL-1β與其他促炎因子(例如CXCL13和內(nèi)皮素2)一起在髓鞘再生中可發(fā)揮有益的作用[23],產(chǎn)生這種矛盾現(xiàn)象的原因是由于他們不同受體亞型的時(shí)間依賴(lài)性表達(dá)變化,或者在疾病后期次級(jí)髓鞘分泌因子導(dǎo)致,提示小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在調(diào)節(jié)腦穩(wěn)態(tài)中的復(fù)雜作用。

3 治療方法

目前,尚未有批準(zhǔn)的改善髓鞘再生的療法,特別是沒(méi)有針對(duì)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的療法[24]。但是,已經(jīng)有報(bào)道相關(guān)藥物可降低小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的神經(jīng)炎癥活性[25],達(dá)到緩解疾病的目的。在一項(xiàng)缺血性中風(fēng)模型誘導(dǎo)的小鼠中,與對(duì)照組比較,體溫過(guò)低降低了小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的炎癥表型并增加其免疫調(diào)節(jié)類(lèi)型,促進(jìn)了腦白質(zhì)的自身修復(fù)[26]。Li等[27]通過(guò)運(yùn)用VK-28{5-[4-(2-羥乙基)哌嗪-1-基甲基]-喹啉-8-ol,一種腦可滲透性鐵螯合劑}治療小鼠腦出血模型,通過(guò)對(duì)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞極化,可使之變成免疫調(diào)節(jié)亞型并減少腦白質(zhì)損傷。同樣運(yùn)用富馬酸二甲酯(一種已知可抑制小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞炎癥的藥物)對(duì)100對(duì)患有嚴(yán)重腦灌注不足的小鼠治療后,發(fā)現(xiàn)炎癥性小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和巨噬細(xì)胞數(shù)量均適度減少,而且腦白質(zhì)的功能損害也得到了相應(yīng)改善[28]。總體而言,這些研究提示通過(guò)直接靶向作用或者轉(zhuǎn)化小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞亞型的方法可能是一種針對(duì)腦白質(zhì)疾病新穎有效的療法。因此通過(guò)調(diào)節(jié)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞表型促進(jìn)腦白質(zhì)修復(fù)意義重大,如果有相關(guān)的潛在療法,臨床將大受裨益。

4 結(jié)語(yǔ)

在中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病急性階段,有害的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞會(huì)促進(jìn)炎癥性微環(huán)境,涉及抗原呈遞和促炎分子地分泌,從而觸發(fā)脫髓鞘和神經(jīng)元損傷。然而,在隨后的恢復(fù)期,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的過(guò)度激活被減弱,其吞噬活性有助于清除髓磷脂碎片和死細(xì)胞。免疫調(diào)節(jié)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞還分泌促進(jìn)OPC遷移及其發(fā)育成少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的因子,從而促進(jìn)髓鞘再生。盡管已經(jīng)積累了多重有害與有益作用的證據(jù),但這些相反現(xiàn)象所涉及的機(jī)制仍有待充分理解,針對(duì)于此的潛在療法仍有待進(jìn)一步挖掘。

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(收稿日期:2020-01-09)

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