（美）萬斯·G.馬丁 （加）哈維·洛克 曹越 張倩

在許多北美的國家公園尤其是那些最知名的國家公園中，荒野具有重要的保護(hù)價值。荒野在加拿大和美國的通俗文化中是一個適用于許多情景的概念，包括但不限于國家公園。就像漢語一樣，“荒野”這個詞的意思也取決于上下文。因此，在聚焦北美“國家公園中的荒野”及其與中國的潛在關(guān)聯(lián)之前，首先應(yīng)簡要闡釋荒野的廣義含義以及這一概念在保護(hù)地中的應(yīng)用。

荒野一般有3個基本特征：物理和生物特征、社會特征、象征性特征，其中物理和生物特征是最首要的?；囊爸傅氖窃谧匀粭⒌?、動植物群落、生物過程（包括演化過程）和生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)方面保持完整或基本完整的大面積土地[1]。這反映了該詞的北歐起源：野生動物棲息地，這里土地的意志主導(dǎo)人類的意志。它是一個以野性為主的地方，自然是首要的，人類的利用有限，但這并不意味著沒有人[2]。滿足基本生活需求的狩獵和采集、非機(jī)動娛樂活動、精神層面的滿足以及不時出現(xiàn)的放牧（在不影響物理和生物價值的情況下）都是與荒野相容的人類使用方式；而農(nóng)業(yè)、伐木、采礦、筑壩、修路和建立永久性城鎮(zhèn)等轉(zhuǎn)化性活動會破壞荒野的固有特征，使其不再是荒野。從這個意義上說，荒野是一種特定的物理和生物狀態(tài)，無論它是否位于受保護(hù)區(qū)內(nèi)，都可以存在于北美和世界其他地方[3-4]。

在北美和其他地方，荒野還可以作為一種特定保護(hù)地的正式名稱，與國家公園有所區(qū)別。在加拿大和美國的國家、省/州級別都可以找到具有法定名稱的荒野保護(hù)地。國際自然保護(hù)聯(lián)盟（IUCN）、世界保護(hù)地委員會（WCPA）將這些地區(qū)列為“1b類”自然保護(hù)地，并將其定義為：“大部分保留原貌或僅有微小變動的大片區(qū)域，其自然特征和影響留存，沒有永久性或明顯的人類居住痕跡，受到保護(hù)和管理以保持其自然原貌。”[5]

荒野存在于北美的一些國家公園里，但并非所有的國家公園都有荒野。大多數(shù)國家公園（美國的一些文化歷史遺址除外）都有野性特征，荒野是由野性占主導(dǎo)的大片區(qū)域，通常遠(yuǎn)離城市和農(nóng)業(yè)用地，城市和農(nóng)業(yè)景觀雖不具備荒野特征，但可以提供寶貴的野性因素（例如野生鳥類和哺乳動物，森林斑塊，濕地和自然美景）[6]。雖然城市國家公園可以提供野外體驗(yàn)，但它們并不具備荒野的特質(zhì)。

本研究將聚焦于中國和北美具有荒野條件的公園，即“國家公園中的荒野”。在國際上，盡管國家公園和荒野是IUCN定義的Ⅱ類和1b類保護(hù)地，且許多國家的保護(hù)地體系都遵循這樣的指導(dǎo)方針，但實(shí)際上，這兩種類型保護(hù)地在地理上存在一定程度的重疊。特別是在北美的大型和最具代表性的國家公園中，荒野地通常占公園總面積的95%以上。國家公園與荒野的關(guān)系取決于特定保護(hù)地中不同的保護(hù)目的和重點(diǎn)。無論荒野地是否被定義為國家公園的核心部分或獨(dú)立的保護(hù)區(qū)，荒野的保護(hù)價值和質(zhì)量都應(yīng)作為關(guān)鍵因素予以關(guān)注。中國具有荒野的國家公園通常位于胡煥庸線以西，以及極北地區(qū)[7-8]；同樣，在北美，它們大多位于西經(jīng)100°以西或不適合農(nóng)業(yè)的北部地區(qū)。在探討國家公園中的荒野時，中國和北美之間有著驚人的相似之處。

1 加拿大國家公園中的荒野

從加拿大最早建立國家公園開始，荒野就被認(rèn)為是一種價值。1887年關(guān)于創(chuàng)立落基山國家公園（現(xiàn)在的班夫國家公園）的辯論記錄中，就提出荒野價值是加拿大的優(yōu)勢，應(yīng)該在國家的第一個國家公園中得到保護(hù)[9]。

至1908年，加拿大已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)了幾個包含大片荒野區(qū)域的大型國家公園。加拿大第一任國家公園專員J.B.哈金將荒野認(rèn)定為國家公園的關(guān)鍵價值。他將國家公園與城市公園區(qū)分開，指出“國家公園實(shí)際上就是自然狀態(tài)下的大片荒野”。他從美國國家公園之父約翰·繆爾那些優(yōu)雅的荒野著作中獲得同樣的支持，強(qiáng)調(diào)人們體驗(yàn)荒野對健康、娛樂和精神慰藉的重要性[10]。 哈金還對20世紀(jì)30年代在美國成立的荒野協(xié)會（一個倡導(dǎo)組織）深表贊同[11]。

在1917年世界上首屆國際國家公園會議期間，許多美國發(fā)言人倡導(dǎo)修路以支持通往國家公園的汽車旅游。雖然哈金意識到旅游業(yè)作為公園經(jīng)濟(jì)基礎(chǔ)的重要性，但他的觀點(diǎn)很大程度集中在國家公園的荒野價值上，他說：“我想強(qiáng)調(diào)‘荒野’這個詞，因?yàn)檫@對我來說是國家公園最重要的一點(diǎn)?！盵12]

在哈金漫長的職業(yè)生涯中，一直致力于將加拿大國家公園的道路最少化、荒野最大化。他建議盡可能限制機(jī)動車道的建設(shè)，原因包括保障體驗(yàn)質(zhì)量，如精神體驗(yàn)，“在這些寂靜的荒野中有‘圣地’。徒步或騎馬穿越的人所享受和體驗(yàn)到的是那些坐著汽車呼嘯而過的人永遠(yuǎn)不會知道的”[11]。對加拿大人來說，荒野是一種珍貴的國家價值。然而自然資源開采是加拿大經(jīng)濟(jì)的主要來源，是否保護(hù)荒野是一場對野性自然的熱愛與自然資源開采帶來的經(jīng)濟(jì)價值之間的辯論[13]。

20世紀(jì)70年代初，印第安和北方事務(wù)部長讓·克雷蒂安創(chuàng)立了10個國家公園。30年后，當(dāng)他擔(dān)任加拿大總理時，著手創(chuàng)立了另外10個國家公園，并擴(kuò)建了3個已有的國家公園。其中許多公園都具有突出的荒野價值。

哈金堅信的國家公園荒野核心價值最初沒有得到任何法律或監(jiān)管措施的支持。哈金之后的公園管理者在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)后的幾年里傾向于強(qiáng)調(diào)旅游業(yè)和道路建設(shè)，而非荒野保護(hù)。越來越多的道路建設(shè)、旅游設(shè)施和滑雪開發(fā)進(jìn)入了國家公園。

1.1 加拿大正式保護(hù)荒野價值

公園倡導(dǎo)者主張對荒野進(jìn)行更正式的保護(hù)，于1979年引入了荒野分區(qū)制度。但這種制度仍然容易產(chǎn)生變化，所以加拿大公園和荒野協(xié)會通過游說，呼吁在國家公園內(nèi)設(shè)定合法荒野區(qū)。雖然1987年《國家公園法》中就有認(rèn)定規(guī)定，但公園管理者不希望有這樣的限制，所以他們沒有設(shè)定荒野區(qū)。然而，班夫國家公園的另一輪商業(yè)旅游開發(fā)壓力引發(fā)更為激烈的全國性辯論。為努力減少班夫的開發(fā)，并防止在其他地方的類似問題發(fā)生，聯(lián)邦政府于2000年將班夫、賈斯珀、庫特尼和約霍國家公園超過90%的區(qū)域認(rèn)定為合法的荒野區(qū)。

加拿大在以城市和農(nóng)場為主的地區(qū)有非常小的國家公園，與荒野概念通常不相關(guān)；而北部有非常大的國家公園，游客很少，荒野是其內(nèi)部及周邊的主要特征。一些原住民擔(dān)心荒野概念會排斥人類，而另一些人則認(rèn)為荒野概念反映了他們對該地區(qū)的傳統(tǒng)利用情況。

加拿大公園管理局的《國家公園荒野區(qū)域宣言行動計劃》反映了這些地區(qū)差異。8個加拿大國家公園已經(jīng)合法地宣布荒野受法律保護(hù)，其中6個位于加拿大中部的共享景觀地區(qū)，2個位于加拿大北部，與不反對荒野概念的原住民共同管理。另有4個國家公園被指定為荒野。愛德華王子島國家公園是第一個被城市和農(nóng)場包圍的國家公園，提出了部分荒野區(qū)劃的提議。而有爭議的是，班夫國家公園的一小部分但重要的荒野被改用于滑雪開發(fā)，依然是當(dāng)前有待解決的問題[14]。

1.2 加拿大國家公園中的荒野保護(hù)

加拿大的國家公園有5種分區(qū)類型，荒野可以大致對應(yīng)5種分區(qū)中的前兩個。

1）I區(qū)——特殊保存區(qū)域。指包含或支持獨(dú)特的、受威脅的或?yàn)l危的自然或文化特征，或?qū)儆谝粋€代表自然區(qū)域特征的最佳范例，具有值得特別保護(hù)的特定地區(qū)或特征。保存是關(guān)鍵考慮因素，不得允許機(jī)動車的進(jìn)入和通行。如果該地區(qū)的脆弱性使公眾無法進(jìn)入，將盡量為公園游客提供適當(dāng)?shù)膱鐾忭?xiàng)目和展覽，以展示該地區(qū)的特殊特征。

2）II區(qū)——荒野區(qū)。指能很好地代表自然區(qū)域并將被保護(hù)為荒野狀態(tài)的大面積區(qū)域。以最小的人為干擾使生態(tài)系統(tǒng)得以持續(xù)化保護(hù)是其關(guān)鍵考慮因素。

此外，該分區(qū)政策還補(bǔ)充道：“除最小的國家公園外，I區(qū)和II區(qū)將共同構(gòu)成所有國家公園的大部分面積，并對維護(hù)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的完整性做出最大貢獻(xiàn)。”[15]

以下數(shù)據(jù)摘自37個已制定管理計劃并標(biāo)明分區(qū)的加拿大國家公園。一些公園的分區(qū)還沒有完成（大部分是新公園），公園管理規(guī)劃仍在制定中。I區(qū)：占公園面積的0.02%～78%，平均占10.30%。II區(qū)：占公園面積的11.00%～100%，平均占83.22%。I區(qū)+II區(qū)：占公園面積的17.00%～100%，平均占93.50%。只有2個公園的I區(qū)和II區(qū)之和不到公園總面積的50.00%，即愛德華王子島（44.00%）和格魯吉亞灣島（17.00%)。這2個公園面積都很小，位于加拿大南部，游客很多。

從加拿大國家公園保護(hù)荒野的經(jīng)驗(yàn)來看，如果不將荒野價值作為法律規(guī)定的價值進(jìn)行特別保護(hù)，開發(fā)壓力將會侵蝕荒野價值。即使有法律保護(hù)，最受旅游業(yè)歡迎的國家公園也會因減少荒野面積面臨巨大的壓力。旅游壓力很小的偏遠(yuǎn)國家公園可能不需要這種額外的保護(hù)。中國景觀最好和最具標(biāo)志性的國家公園可能會面臨與班夫國家公園類似的挑戰(zhàn)。為了保持受歡迎的國家公園的荒野價值，需要國家做出重大承諾，并建立強(qiáng)有力的監(jiān)管框架。

2 北美跨境國家公園荒野保護(hù)路徑

加拿大和美國長期和平享有邊界。他們根據(jù)國家法律共同創(chuàng)建了瓦特頓-冰川國際和平公園。加拿大已經(jīng)將瓦特頓公園的一部分指定為合法的荒野，而美國的冰川公園則利用管理規(guī)劃來保護(hù)其大片的荒野區(qū)域。這些公園也是聯(lián)合國教科文組織指定的世界遺產(chǎn)地，如同黃石到育空走廊（Y2Y）中的其他幾個標(biāo)志性國家公園——黃石、班夫、賈斯珀、庫特尼、約霍和納漢尼（后5個都在加拿大），都有法律規(guī)定的荒野，黃石公園則有受行政法規(guī)所保護(hù)的荒野。以上情況引發(fā)了一項(xiàng)提議，即考慮建立一個世界遺產(chǎn)綜合體，將由Y2Y走廊沿線相互連接的國家公園荒野地區(qū)組成[16]。這種跨境荒野保護(hù)的方法可能會啟發(fā)中國邊境附近地區(qū)。

3 美國國家公園系統(tǒng)中的荒野

對于荒野在美國國家公園中的作用，最好通過一些文化背景來理解?；囊案拍詈拖嚓P(guān)立法隨著100多年前美國快速發(fā)展的國家和文化而演變。關(guān)鍵在于理解道路建設(shè)/基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施發(fā)展與荒野價值之間的緊張關(guān)系。

19世紀(jì)的工業(yè)革命推動了經(jīng)濟(jì)增長，加上年輕的美國有向外擴(kuò)張的傾向，導(dǎo)致了許多有爭議和不恰當(dāng)?shù)耐恋乩脤?shí)踐。大面積的野性區(qū)域很快被人類所利用，并經(jīng)常因破壞生態(tài)的伐木、采礦和農(nóng)業(yè)活動而退化[17]。

雖然早期的國家公園內(nèi)停止了此類活動，但美國第一批國家公園仍然存在優(yōu)先發(fā)展旅游業(yè)而非保護(hù)荒野價值的傾向。當(dāng)世界上第一個國家公園于1872年在黃石建立時，旨在成為“一個供人們受益和享受的公共公園或娛樂場所”[18]，它優(yōu)先考慮的是人類而不是荒野保護(hù)。游客需要的旅館、露營地和商店都需要道路支持，道路帶來巨大好處的同時也破壞了棲息地、造成污染、導(dǎo)致物種滅絕，摧毀了自然美景和寧靜[19]。

伴隨著美國人對汽車的迷戀，國家公園也卷入了全國性的公路建設(shè)熱潮。1913年美國有100萬輛汽車，16年后數(shù)量急劇增加到2 300萬輛。美國幅員遼闊，加上經(jīng)濟(jì)的增長和美國人對個人權(quán)利和自由的向往，推動了汽車行業(yè)的爆炸式增長，而非公共交通擴(kuò)張。因此，數(shù)千千米的道路得以修建，為酒店和娛樂基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施提供服務(wù)，滿足駕車穿越和觀賞游樂的需求。且道路建設(shè)幾乎完全由美國政府資助。

美國土地管理的一種主要形式是通過農(nóng)業(yè)部下屬的國家林業(yè)局（USNFS）管理的國家森林系統(tǒng)，創(chuàng)建于20世紀(jì)初，目的是將非農(nóng)業(yè)林地公有化。1915年，新的美國林業(yè)局授權(quán)在聯(lián)邦地區(qū)建立露營地和小木屋，1916年，美國國會將所有聯(lián)邦公路建設(shè)資金的15%分配給林業(yè)局[20]。除了旅游業(yè)，其他開發(fā)活動也需要大量的道路建設(shè)，特別是在林業(yè)局所管理的土地上進(jìn)行商業(yè)性伐木。

20世紀(jì)初，美國西部還修建了大量水壩。一項(xiàng)在約塞米蒂國家公園中心建造大壩的提議引發(fā)了激烈的公眾辯論。舊金山市希望在壯觀的赫奇赫奇山谷的圖奧勒米河上筑起水壩進(jìn)行城市供水。關(guān)于是否應(yīng)該允許這樣做的全國性爭論持續(xù)了20年，但環(huán)保主義者輸了。大壩于1913年獲得批準(zhǔn)，河谷被洪水淹沒[21]。

隨著美國的發(fā)展變化，自然性和野性之間的內(nèi)涵開始有所區(qū)別。景觀的自然性通常是人為產(chǎn)生的，通常出現(xiàn)在高度管理的公園和美麗的城市綠地和花園中。野性是指那些以生態(tài)為中心的屬性，被認(rèn)為是更具自由意志的（或由自我決定的），幾乎沒有人類干預(yù)，包括承認(rèn)自然內(nèi)在的精神和按照自己的方式自然進(jìn)化的權(quán)利[22]。

一些人認(rèn)為，工業(yè)和商業(yè)在正式保護(hù)地或附近荒地內(nèi)幾乎不受限制地發(fā)展對荒野來說是危險的，最終是致命的，需要一些具體的措施來保護(hù)這些價值。

3.1 美國正式保護(hù)荒野價值

北美第一部荒野保護(hù)法于19世紀(jì)90年代在紐約州通過，建立了阿迪朗達(dá)克公園以保護(hù)流入紐約市的哈德遜河的源頭。該公園的主題是美國自然保護(hù)史上的標(biāo)志性主題——“永遠(yuǎn)的荒野”。

在美國國家土地上，20世紀(jì)初出現(xiàn)了將荒野作為正式保護(hù)地的概念。約翰·繆爾等民間社會的保護(hù)主義領(lǐng)袖首先提出了這一觀點(diǎn)，他們主張在國家公園內(nèi)保護(hù)荒野區(qū)?？姞杽?chuàng)立了塞拉俱樂部，并領(lǐng)導(dǎo)了反對修建赫奇赫奇大壩的斗爭（雖然最終失敗了）。他對荒野的熱愛可以用其著作《我們的國家公園》（1901年）中的一句話來概括：“靠近大自然的心，偶爾徹底放松，攀爬一座山峰或在叢林里度過一周，洗凈你的靈魂。”美國林業(yè)局的職員奧爾多·利奧波德主張在國家公園管理局所管轄的土地上保護(hù)荒野。利奧波德的《沙鄉(xiāng)年鑒》（1949）是美國荒野文學(xué)的經(jīng)典之作。他在書的前言中寫道：“像風(fēng)和日落一樣，野性事物被認(rèn)為是理所當(dāng)然的，直到進(jìn)步開始消滅它們?，F(xiàn)在我們面臨的問題是，是否值得以自然、野生和自由的代價來換取更高的‘生活水平’?！崩麏W波德和其他人成功地推廣了荒野概念，直到美國林業(yè)局（1924年）在新墨西哥州的吉拉國家森林內(nèi)指定了3個所謂的“原始”地區(qū)，總面積為2 250 km2。雖然被認(rèn)為是美國國家政府正式指定的第一個“荒野”，但它不受國家法律保護(hù)，而是受美國國家林業(yè)局行政命令的保護(hù)[23]。

一場由公民發(fā)起的“保護(hù)野性與荒野”的倡議開始生根發(fā)芽。利奧波德和其他人創(chuàng)立了荒野協(xié)會。在主要由社會組織和一些傾向于荒野保護(hù)的政治家堅持不懈地進(jìn)行了數(shù)十年的戰(zhàn)略性倡導(dǎo)之后，1964年美國通過了《荒野法》。該法案規(guī)定，無論哪個機(jī)構(gòu)控制的荒野地都受法律保護(hù)，所以它既適用于國家公園，也適用于國家森林。與機(jī)構(gòu)行政行為明顯不同的是，這是只能通過國會進(jìn)一步立法才能修改的國家法律。《荒野法》用異乎尋常的詩意語言來描述和區(qū)分荒野及其在美國文化和自然資源管理中的角色，是世界上第一部致力于荒野概念的國家立法。此外，該法案創(chuàng)建了國家荒野保護(hù)系統(tǒng)（NWPS），法案通過后，許多先前指定的原始地區(qū)被重新分類為國家荒野地區(qū)。

國家荒野保護(hù)系統(tǒng)最初由13個州的54個指定區(qū)域組成，總面積37 000 km2。這些指定區(qū)域覆蓋了由國家公園管理局、漁業(yè)和野生動物管理局（自1978年以來由國土資源部的土地管理局管理）和農(nóng)業(yè)部的美國林業(yè)局管理的聯(lián)邦土地。如今，該系統(tǒng)由美國44個州和領(lǐng)地的803個地區(qū)組成，總面積近452 000 km2，占美國面積的5%，其中超過50%位于遙遠(yuǎn)的阿拉斯加州北部[24]。

3.2 美國國家公園的荒野保護(hù)

在國家荒野保護(hù)系統(tǒng)認(rèn)定的803個荒野區(qū)中，有61個位于50個國家公園中，總面積為17.8萬km2。要了解美國國家公園系統(tǒng)，須重點(diǎn)關(guān)注美國國家公園管理局（USNPS）管理的19種命名分類，包括國家海岸、戰(zhàn)場、紀(jì)念館、紀(jì)念碑、公園大道、野生和風(fēng)景河流等。在美國國家公園管理局管理的425個獨(dú)立單位中，實(shí)際上只有63個是真正的國家公園[25]。

以黃石公園、大峽谷、約塞米蒂、落基山脈和大沼澤地這5個最具代表性的美國國家公園為例，顯然國家公園內(nèi)大量沒有被《荒野法》正式認(rèn)定的土地和水域也被作為荒野進(jìn)行管理，這是因?yàn)閲鴷笏忻绹鴩夜珗@評估其土地和水域的荒野屬性，并將這些地區(qū)分類“研究”成為荒野地，評估等級包括“合適”“建議”“推薦”“認(rèn)定”。為了符合1964年《荒野法》，被分類的地區(qū)都將作為已經(jīng)“認(rèn)定”的荒野來管理[26]。管理內(nèi)容包括禁止機(jī)動車輛、無永久性的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，以及應(yīng)用“最少工具規(guī)則”，即任何管理都應(yīng)以最少的干預(yù)和非機(jī)械化的方式進(jìn)行。

黃石國家公園是美國最著名的公園。自1972年以來，其總面積8 900 km2中約有8 093 km2（90%）被“推薦”為荒野，因此被作為荒野區(qū)進(jìn)行管理。然而，美國國會尚未對將這片土地合法納入美國荒野保護(hù)地體系的建議采取行動。同樣，在美國訪問量第二大的國家公園——大峽谷國家公園中，其93%的面積被提議作為荒野區(qū)進(jìn)行管理，但尚未被認(rèn)定[27]。

相反，標(biāo)志性的約塞米蒂國家公園（加利福尼亞州）面積為3 082 km2，其中2 851 km2（93%）根據(jù)《荒野法》被正式認(rèn)定為荒野[28]。落基山國家公園（科羅拉多州）在受歡迎程度上排名第三，2019年有近500萬游客。在1 075 km2的總面積中，有1 008 km2（93%）在2009年被正式認(rèn)定為荒野，這是荒野倡導(dǎo)者35年來堅持不懈工作的一個高潮[29-30]。

這里特別要提的是佛羅里達(dá)的大沼澤地國家公園，它創(chuàng)建于1934年，早于《荒野法》頒布。這是美國第一個專門為保護(hù)其獨(dú)特的荒野而建立的國家公園，創(chuàng)建的唯一目的是保護(hù)脆弱的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。公園內(nèi)5 260 km2的瑪喬麗·斯通曼·道格拉斯荒野區(qū)域于1978年被認(rèn)定，是西經(jīng)100°以東最大的指定荒野區(qū)[31]。

3.3 原住民和美國國家公園的荒野

現(xiàn)在美國境內(nèi)的所有土地都是以前美洲原住民、阿拉斯加原住民和夏威夷原住民的領(lǐng)土。總的來說，美國在與這些原住民的關(guān)系上有一段不堪回首的歷史，這段歷史也延伸到了美國的保護(hù)地范疇。1964年的《荒野法》忽略了印第安人，早期的荒野名稱和荒野管理認(rèn)定也沒有與印第安人協(xié)商或合作，以及闡明他們的需求、用途和遺產(chǎn)。可能的例外是，政府認(rèn)識到有必要保護(hù)西南部美洲原住民住址和史前遺址的可觀文化和遺產(chǎn)價值。盡管這種疏忽最終得到了糾正，但一度給人留下了一種難以消除的荒野印象——是為精英、歐洲遺產(chǎn)游憩者創(chuàng)造的禁區(qū)。各種形式的賠償都是必要的，而且正在處理中。世界上許多保護(hù)地也面臨著類似問題[32]。

原住民在1980年的《阿拉斯加國家名勝地保護(hù)法案》（ANILCA）中得到承認(rèn)。該法案在整個州45%（404 685 km2）的土地上建立了新的聯(lián)邦保護(hù)區(qū)，其中包括由所有聯(lián)邦土地管理機(jī)構(gòu)管理的認(rèn)定荒野區(qū)230 670 km2。阿拉斯加州95%的國家公園都在荒野管理之下。經(jīng)過與阿拉斯加原住民的大量磋商，ANILCA規(guī)定了原住民在荒野和其他保護(hù)區(qū)內(nèi)的生計用途，并對《荒野法》進(jìn)行了重大修改，包括允許機(jī)動運(yùn)輸（主要是雪車）和半永久性帳篷營地和平臺，用于生存狩獵、捕魚和采集[33]。此外，一些美國家公園管理局所管轄土地是與傳統(tǒng)所有者共同管理的，如熊耳國家紀(jì)念地（猶他州）。

為了與原住民的生活相融，美國國家公園管理局做出了正式努力。國家公園管理局內(nèi)正式設(shè)定了美洲印第安人聯(lián)絡(luò)辦公室，為部落政府和部落成員提供有關(guān)自然資源、公園政策、公園單位、公園實(shí)踐、土地恢復(fù)等服務(wù)，并解決美洲原住民與國家公園之間長期存在的問題。盡管進(jìn)展不易，但終于開始實(shí)現(xiàn)。

4 荒野與中國國家公園系統(tǒng)及建議

4.1 中國荒野與國家公園現(xiàn)狀

在中國，荒野的現(xiàn)代概念最初是通過西方自然文學(xué)引入的，并逐漸被自然保護(hù)主義者和自然愛好者所熟知。21世紀(jì)初，程虹、侯文惠等翻譯了《荒野與美國思想》和《低吟的荒野》等美國自然文學(xué)經(jīng)典，還撰寫了《尋歸荒野》等介紹美國自然文學(xué)的書籍，這些書籍使中國人對具有異國文化背景的荒野概念有了深入了解[34-36]。

在現(xiàn)代中國的自然保護(hù)領(lǐng)域中，荒野是一個外來概念，尚未得到國內(nèi)法律和政策的官方確認(rèn)。而近年來，環(huán)境的變化促使中國對荒野概念的理解加深。來自WILD基金會、全球荒野基金會和IUCN荒野專家組的專家向中國學(xué)者、從業(yè)者和政府人員提供了他們的專業(yè)知識，加速了這一領(lǐng)域的國際合作。最重要的是，建立生態(tài)文明作為國家領(lǐng)導(dǎo)和中央政府的一項(xiàng)重要戰(zhàn)略，為激發(fā)中國對這一概念的興趣以及東西方之間相關(guān)信息的交流與合作提供了最佳框架。

在這個過程中，“荒野”一詞逐漸進(jìn)入中國自然保護(hù)政策制定者、研究者、實(shí)踐者和愛好者的意識中。然而，人們對荒野概念的理解仍然存在分歧，這與對荒野科學(xué)的研究缺乏有關(guān)，特別是在生物-物理維度上。文化差異也會影響對該術(shù)語的理解和更好、更深的發(fā)展。

近年來，中國學(xué)者從不同角度對荒野概念在中國的應(yīng)用進(jìn)行了開創(chuàng)性的重要研究。最突出的是，清華大學(xué)的楊銳和曹越借鑒國際荒野制圖方法，繪制了首張中國大陸國土尺度的荒野地圖，初步確定了中國荒野的分布情況[37-38]。他們的研究結(jié)果表明，中國不同質(zhì)量的、事實(shí)上的荒野覆蓋范圍很大?；谶@些結(jié)果，這些中國學(xué)者呼吁建立中國荒野保護(hù)系統(tǒng)。其他領(lǐng)域的學(xué)者，如蘇州大學(xué)的高山，已經(jīng)開始從哲學(xué)和環(huán)境美學(xué)的角度探討中國文化背景下的荒野概念。新成立的“自然、荒野與文明”在線中心通過跨學(xué)科交流、通訊、辯論等方式，推動著中國荒野立法目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn)。

2013年，中國提出建立國家公園體制，形成了一種新的自然保護(hù)體系和模式，旨在提高環(huán)境治理能力。國家公園系統(tǒng)的建立旨在保護(hù)最有價值的自然場所，并為子孫后代保存寶貴資源。根據(jù)官方定義，國家公園是中國最有價值的自然生態(tài)區(qū)，保護(hù)著極其豐富和重要的生物多樣性。2017年9月，《建立國家公園體制總體方案》正式發(fā)布，明確了國家公園在中國復(fù)雜保護(hù)地體系中的定位，確立了國家公園的首要功能是保護(hù)重要自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的原真性、完整性，同時兼具科研、教育、游憩等綜合功能。2019年6月，《關(guān)于建立以國家公園為主體的自然保護(hù)地體系的指導(dǎo)意見》提出了嚴(yán)格保護(hù)、世代傳承的基本原則[38]。到目前為止，國家公園是中國最重要的保護(hù)地類型，與自然保護(hù)區(qū)和自然公園一起成為新的三大保護(hù)地類型。

目前中國國家公園的定義和保護(hù)目標(biāo)與國際上荒野的概念非常相似，尤其是國際上認(rèn)定的原真性、完整性和最嚴(yán)格的保護(hù)要求是保護(hù)荒野的本質(zhì)屬性。目前中國的10個國家公園試點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目，特別是三江源國家公園、祁連山國家公園等西部地區(qū)的國家公園，在地理位置上覆蓋了中國西部最重要的荒野地。

在國家公園體制改革初步完成的階段，大量研究指出，目前中國國家公園在候選地上的科學(xué)選擇、國家公園邊界、合理分區(qū)、科學(xué)管理等方面還存在諸多不足[39-40]。現(xiàn)有的國家公園試驗(yàn)區(qū)在劃定邊界和區(qū)劃方面多遵循以前的《自然保護(hù)區(qū)條例》，在保護(hù)區(qū)的擴(kuò)大、劃定邊界和區(qū)劃、管理等方面缺乏足夠的科學(xué)依據(jù)。因此，國際經(jīng)驗(yàn)，特別是美國、加拿大等建立了相對成熟的荒野保護(hù)制度的國家，可以為中國國家公園制度的完善提供有益的借鑒。

4.2 對于中國荒野保護(hù)的建議

1）將中國的荒野價值主流化，融入生態(tài)文明理念。正如世界著名生態(tài)倫理學(xué)家霍姆斯·羅爾斯頓三世所指出的那樣，荒野是生態(tài)文明的必要條件，對荒野的充分保護(hù)是生態(tài)文明成熟的標(biāo)志。荒野保護(hù)應(yīng)成為中國自然保護(hù)地體系的重要組成部分，特別是可以與“碳達(dá)峰”和“碳中和”目標(biāo)以及生物多樣性政策相結(jié)合。清華大學(xué)研究團(tuán)隊認(rèn)為，荒野在中國主流化的過程還應(yīng)該包括在公眾中普及荒野保護(hù)，這將極大地幫助構(gòu)建一個非常重要的社會基礎(chǔ)，讓人們理解、支持和自發(fā)地采取行動保護(hù)中國的野性自然[41]。

2）加強(qiáng)全國荒野存量調(diào)查，建立中國荒野區(qū)分布位置、價值、特征等數(shù)據(jù)庫。在此基礎(chǔ)上，提出中國不同荒野區(qū)的命名和分類體系，可用于相應(yīng)的適應(yīng)性規(guī)劃和管理。在調(diào)查中，亟須加強(qiáng)區(qū)域尺度的荒野制圖與規(guī)劃研究，借鑒國際上的荒野識別方法，為解決中國國家公園系統(tǒng)和其他保護(hù)地的保護(hù)缺口以及其他空間規(guī)劃用地提供新的科學(xué)范式。這也將確保重要生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的原真性和完整性被完全納入中國國家公園的保護(hù)范圍，并對不同景觀空間進(jìn)行適當(dāng)?shù)囊?guī)劃和管理。

3）在確定國家公園核心區(qū)與控制區(qū)的劃分時，建議先確定具體荒野的屬性和價值，科學(xué)、動態(tài)地調(diào)整功能分區(qū)。這將有助于制定最具適應(yīng)性的國家公園分區(qū)控制措施，從而明確禁止、限制和允許人類活動的原則，采用例如可接受的改變極限（LAC）原則。

4）為加強(qiáng)中國國家公園的科學(xué)管理，建議借鑒國際上成熟的、具有最佳實(shí)踐性的荒野管理原則和監(jiān)測方法。例如，通過確定野性自然的價值、質(zhì)量和屬性，確保國家公園生態(tài)原真性得到保護(hù)；通過適當(dāng)?shù)幕囊坝雾_發(fā)利用和管理，提升公眾對國家公園野性自然美學(xué)的審美。借鑒北美的經(jīng)驗(yàn)和教訓(xùn)，熱門國家公園應(yīng)該從一開始就平衡荒野游憩和旅游需求，注重生態(tài)保護(hù)，避免旅游開發(fā)占主導(dǎo)。在管理方面，借鑒國際上使用最少工具和以最少侵入性和非機(jī)動方式管理干預(yù)措施的原則。在適應(yīng)性管理的過程中，一開始就將保護(hù)地內(nèi)的原住民納入治理共同體，尊重他們的傳統(tǒng)知識，維護(hù)他們對荒野的神圣價值觀。

在國際上，與其他類型的保護(hù)地不同，只有11個國家對荒野進(jìn)行了國家立法。另有37個國家在省級或州級立法中保護(hù)荒野。還有23個國家以行政命令或功能區(qū)劃對荒野進(jìn)行保護(hù)?；囊案拍钫诒谎杆俚夭捎?，顯示出人們對其概念和實(shí)用性的廣泛接受。1989年，在IUCN系統(tǒng)內(nèi)登記的荒野地區(qū)有44個，截至2015年，已確定的荒野保護(hù)地約有3 000個。

根據(jù)中國國家公園的定義，這些公園似乎將覆蓋中國大部分事實(shí)上的荒野。充分吸收和呼應(yīng)國際上在荒野科學(xué)與管理方面的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，可以使中國國家公園管理者和決策者按照國際通行的程序工作，為中國國家公園的科學(xué)建設(shè)、管理和長遠(yuǎn)發(fā)展積累寶貴的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。

人們強(qiáng)烈支持制定中國的國家公園法[42]。為了加強(qiáng)中國的荒野研究，建立“中國荒野保護(hù)體系”也可以納入中國國家公園法的范疇。此外，中國未來的荒野工作和實(shí)踐，特別是國家公園系統(tǒng)的荒野保護(hù)，不僅可以保護(hù)生物多樣性、美景和原真性，還可以為中國和國際游客提供世界級的荒野體驗(yàn)，這也是一個快速發(fā)展的商業(yè)領(lǐng)域。

5 結(jié)論

筆者認(rèn)為，用法律保護(hù)荒野可以成為中國以國家公園為中心的保護(hù)地體系的一個有益維度。中國的國家公園可以采用與加拿大和美國類似的方式劃定荒野。中國和美、加之間豐富的交流證明，這3個國家的保護(hù)地專業(yè)人員都有很多東西需要相互學(xué)習(xí)。

在加拿大和美國，荒野概念的發(fā)展和制度化，是因?yàn)榧铀俳ㄔO(shè)了侵入性和破壞性的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，特別是道路所構(gòu)成的威脅。中國最受歡迎的國家公園可能也面臨著類似的旅游壓力。荒野的認(rèn)定確保了一些地區(qū)免受旅游基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施破壞的壓力，而訪客仍然可以得到適當(dāng)?shù)墓芾恚栽试S其擁有原始的體驗(yàn)感。

鑒于過去20年生態(tài)科學(xué)和景觀規(guī)劃的發(fā)展，中國現(xiàn)在可以在國家公園改革的早期利用荒野概念。這將確保大范圍景觀的安全性，并更迅速、直接和有效地幫助應(yīng)對氣候崩潰、物種喪失和流行病等經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會的災(zāi)難性威脅。

在學(xué)術(shù)研究興趣之外，荒野概念也越來越被認(rèn)為是保護(hù)中國自然美景、保護(hù)其野生環(huán)境的原真性和完整性以及其對國家乃至世界的重要生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的重要工具。發(fā)展具有中國特色的荒野概念，與當(dāng)?shù)貍鹘y(tǒng)社區(qū)和諧相處，也完全符合國際關(guān)于保護(hù)地的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和方法。

中國提出了富有遠(yuǎn)見的生態(tài)文明國策，既要保護(hù)紅線，又要尊重人與自然的統(tǒng)一。在中國的國家公園中運(yùn)用荒野的概念可以幫助創(chuàng)建并維護(hù)一個美麗的中國。

（編輯/李清清）

作者簡介：

（美）萬斯·G.馬丁/男/荒野基金會（美）前主席/全球荒野基金會（南非）主席/世界自然保護(hù)聯(lián)盟自然保護(hù)地委員會荒野專家組聯(lián)合主席

（加）哈維·洛克/男/世界自然保護(hù)聯(lián)盟自然保護(hù)地委員會后愛知目標(biāo)特別工作組組長/Y2Y跨境保護(hù)倡議聯(lián)合創(chuàng)立者/加拿大公園與荒野協(xié)會前主席

曹越/男/博士/清華大學(xué)建筑學(xué)院助理教授/研究方向?yàn)閲夜珗@與自然保護(hù)地、荒野保護(hù)與再野化、景觀規(guī)劃設(shè)計

張倩/女/碩士/荒野基金會（美）、全球荒野基金會（南非）中國事務(wù)代表/世界自然保護(hù)聯(lián)盟自然保護(hù)地委員會荒野專家組主管/研究方向?yàn)榛囊肮芾?/p>

MARTIN V G，LOCKE H，CAO Y，ZHANG Q.Adaptive Planning and Management of Wilderness in National Parks: Insights from North America[J].Landscape Architecture, 2023, 30(10): 20-33.DOI: 10.12409/j.fjyl.202304050166.

Adaptive Planning and Management of Wilderness in National Parks: Insights from North America

(USA)Vance G.Martin, (CA)Harvey Locke, CAO Yue, ZHANG Qian

Abstract:[Objective] China is a country rich in wilderness.It would be very useful to create a wilderness related perspective and adaptive management approach for China’s national parks based proteted areas system and other territorial spaces.This will strengthen scientific research and land management,thereby better protecting China’s natural beauty and the authenticity and integrity of national parks.[Methods/process] Wilderness as a protected area concept that was developed subsequent to the national park concept, starting somewhat simultaneously in both Canada and the United States around the turn of the 20th century.The 100-year history of wilderness conservation in North America has undergone continuous adaptive planning and management adjustments as concepts, environments, and conflicts have changed.

[Results/conclusion]Research shows that in North America’s most representative national parks, wilderness areas typically make up more than 95 percent of the total park area.The relationship between national parks and wilderness depends on the different conservation purposes and priorities in a particular protected area.Whether wilderness is defined as a core part of a national park or as a separate protected area, the conservation value and quality of wilderness is addressed as a key factor or managed in a manner and in accordance with principles.The researcher focuses on reviewing the experiences and lessons learned in the history of wilderness adaptive management in national parks in Canada and the United States, and proposes four suggestions for China, which has similar vast coverage of wilderness resources.Including: mainstreaming wilderness values and integrating them into China’s ecological civilization construction, especially the construction of protected areas system with the core status of national parks, as well as carbon peak and carbon neutrality, biodiversity conservation policies and objectives;Strengthen the construction of the national wilderness survey and inventory, and establish the classification and identification standards for China’s wilderness;To scientifically and dynamically adjust the functional zoning of national parks by determining specific wilderness attributes and values; Drawing on international wilderness management guidelines and practices, develop a technical guide for adaptive management of wilderness areas in China, make a balanced plan between tourism development and wilderness recreation in popular national parks from the beginning, and include indigenous peoples in the main body of joint governance.

Keywords:wilderness; national park; protected areas; wilderness in national parks; adaptive management; North America

?BeijingLandscape ArchitectureJournal Periodical Office Co., Ltd.Published byLandscape ArchitectureJournal.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.

Wilderness is an important conservation value in many of North America’s national parks,especially the most famous ones.In the general cultures of both Canada and the US, wilderness is a concept used in many contexts that include but go beyond national parks.Much like in Chinese, the meaning of the word wilderness is context dependent.Thus, we begin by briefly explaining the broader meaning of wilderness and the application of the idea to protected areas in general before we narrow the focus to “national park wilderness” in North America and its potential relevance to China.

In general, wilderness has three essential characteristics: physical and biological, social, and iconic.The physical and biological value of wilderness is of primary importance.It refers to large areas of land that are intact or mostly so in terms of natural habitat, faunal and floral assemblages, biological processes, including evolutionary processes and ecosystem services[1].This reflects the Northern European origins of the word which referred to the place of wild animals where the will of the land dominates over the human will[2].It is place dominated by wildness(Chinese: 野性) , where nature is primary and human use is limited.But that does not mean people-free.People using wilderness for subsistence hunting and gathering, non-motorized recreational activities, spiritual fulfilment and sometimes for grazing when done in a way that does not impair the physical and biological values are human uses compatible with wilderness;transformational activities such as farming, logging,mining, dam building, road-building, and permanent towns degrade the inherent characteristics of wilderness such that their presence causes an area to cease to be wilderness.In this sense, wilderness is a place in a certain physical and biological condition whether or not it is in a protected area.Thus, wilderness can and does exist outside of protected areas in North America and elsewhere in the world.Wilderness has been translated into Chinese as 荒野(Pronounce as “Huangye”)[3-4].

“Wilderness” can also be a formal name for a specific kind of protected area distinct from a national park, in North America and elsewhere.Legally named wilderness protected areas are found at national, provincial and state levels in both Canada and the United States.The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA)classes such areas as protected natural area“Category 1b” and defines them as: “Protected areas that are usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and influence, without permanent or significant human habitation, which are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition.”[5]

Wilderness is present in some of North America’s national parks but not all national parks have wilderness.Most national parks (except some cultural historic sites in the US) have wildness(Chinese: 野性), no matter where they are located across the Three Global Conditions.Whereas wilderness is a large area dominated by wildness that is generally remote from cities and farms, cities and farmed landscapes do not have wilderness but can offer valuable aspects of wildness (such as wild birds and mammals, forest patches, wetlands and natural beauty)[6].Thus, while urban national parks may offer an experience of wildness, they do not have wilderness qualities.

Parks with wilderness conditions - “national park wilderness”- in China and North America will be the focus of this paper.Internationally, even though National Parks and Wilderness are two categaries of protected areas defined by IUCN as category Ⅱ and category 1b and many countries are following such a guidance for their protected areas system, but de facto, these two types of protected areas are geograpcally overlaped to some extent.Especially in large and most representative National Parks like those in the North America,the wilderss ares usually covers more than 95% of the toal coverage of the parks.The relationship between Natioanl Parks and Wilderness depends on different purpose and focus of protection in certain protected areas, whether the wilderness areas should be defined as a core part of a naitonal park or independent as a protected area, the protection of wilderenss values and quality should be concerned as the key factors.In a Chinese context, this means that national parks with wilderness will generally be west of the Hu line except for in the far north[7-8]and, similarly, in North America they are mostly west of the 100th Meridian or in northern areas not suitable for agriculture.When considering national park wilderness opportunities, the similarities between China and North America are striking.

1 Wilderness in Canada’s National Parks

From the earliest creation of national parks in Canada, wilderness was recognized as a value.The record of the 1887 debate that led to the creation of Rocky Mountains National Park (now Banff National Park), includes discussion that wilderness values were a strength of Canada that should be protected in the country’s first national park[9].

By 1908 there were several large national parks with large wilderness areas in them.Canada’s first Commissioner of national parks, J.B.Harkin,identified wilderness as a key value of national parks.He distinguished national parks from city parks noting “The national park, on the other hand, is a huge area and in reality is a wilderness in its natural state.” He drew support for his arguments about the importance of people experiencing wilderness for health, recreation and spiritual solace from the elegant wilderness writings of John Muir who is strongly associated with America’s first national parks[10].Harkin was also“deeply in sympathy” with the Wilderness Society，an advocacy organization, that was created in the US in the 1930s[11].

During the world’s first international national parks conference in 1917, many American speakers advocate the road-building to support automobile tourism to national parks.While Harkin recognized the importance of tourism as an economic rationale for parks, he focused his remarks in large measure on the wilderness values of national parks saying “I want to emphasize the word ‘wilderness’because to me it is the all- essential point when it comes to national parks.”[12]

The desire to minimize roads and maximize wilderness in Canada’s national parks continued throughout the long career of Harkin.He suggested that the building of motor roads should be restricted as much as possible.Reasons include quality of experience, such as the spiritual: “in these silent wildernesses there are ‘holy places’.Those who penetrate them on foot or on horseback enjoy and experience which those who whizz through them in cars can never know”[11].For Canadians, the wilderness is a cherished national value.Whether to protect it or not is a debate between the love of wild nature and economic value that comes from natural resource extraction, which is a major source of the Canadian economy[13].

In the early 1970’s ten new national parks were created under the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs, Jean Chretien.Thirty years later when he was Prime Minister of Canada, he set in motion the creation of ten more and the expansion of three existing national parks.Many of these parks have outstanding wilderness values.

The core value of wilderness in national parks that Harkin so deeply believed in was not initially supported by any legal or regulatory measures.Park administrators after Harkin had a tendency towards emphasizing tourism and road-building over wilderness preservation in the years following World War II.More road building, tourism facilities, and ski developments found their way into national parks.

1.1 Formally Protecting Wilderness Values in Canada

Park advocates argued for more formal protection for wilderness.In 1979 wilderness zoning was introduced.However, this was still too easy to change, so the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, lobbied for the legal designation of wilderness inside national parks.While the provision allowing for such designation by regulation came into theNational Parks Actin 1987, Park administrators did not want such restrictions so they did not put wilderness designations in place.However, another round of commercial tourism development pressure in Banff led to an even more vociferous national debate.In an effort to reduce development in Banff National Park and prevent similar problems elsewhere, the federal government designated more than 90% of Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho National Parks as legal wilderness areas in the year of 2000.

Canada has very small national parks in areas dominated by cities and farms where wilderness is not often a relevant concept, and very large national parks in the north which receive very low visitation and in which wilderness is the dominant condition both in and around them.Some Indigenous People are concerned that the wilderness idea excludes people while others are comfortable that the term reflects their traditional use of the areas.

Parks Canada’sAction Plan for the Declaration of Wilderness Areas in National Parksreflects these regional differences.Eight Canadian national parks have legally declared wilderness protected by regulation.Six of the eight are located in the Shared Landscape of Middle Canada, two are in Northern Canada co-managed with Indigenous People who are comfortable with the wilderness concept.Four additional national parks have wilderness designation.Prince Edward Island National Park is the first national park surrounded by cities and farms for which some wilderness designation is proposed.And, controversially, removing a small but important part of the wilderness of Banff National Park to accommodate ski development in return for some reduced use elsewhere on the ski hill is also pending[14].

1.2 Wilderness Protection in Canada’s National Parks

There are five types of zoning in National Parks in Canada.Wilderness can be roughly equated to 2 of the 5 zones.

1) Zone I — Special Preservation.Specific areas or features which deserve special preservation because they contain or support unique, threatened or endangered natural or cultural features, or are among the best examples of the features that represent a natural region.Preservation is the key consideration.Motorized access and circulation will not be permitted.In cases where the fragility of the area precludes any public access, every effort will be made to provide park visitors with appropriate off-site programs and exhibits interpreting the special characteristics of the zone.

2) Zone II — Wilderness.Extensive areas which are good representations of a natural region and which will be conserved in a wilderness state.The perpetuation of ecosystems with minimal human interference is the key consideration.

Further, the policy adds: “Zones I and II will together constitute the majority of the area of all but the smallest national parks, and will make the greatest contribution toward the conservation of ecosystem integrity.”[15]

The following summary data is based on information from 37 national parks where zones are identified and mapped in a current management plan.Zoning has not been completed in a few parks, mostly newer parks where the park management plan is still under development.Zone I: range from 0.02% to 78.00% of the park area,mean 10.30%.Zone II: range from 11.00% to 100%, mean 83.22%.Zone I+II: range from 17.00% to 100%, means 93.50%.Only 2 parks had zone I + II representing less that half of the total park area: Prince Edward Island NP (44.00%) and Georgian Bay Island NP (17.00%).Both are very small, southern Canada, very high visitation parks.

When it comes to reserving wilderness, the lesson from Canada’s national parks is that wilderness values will be eroded due to development pressures unless wilderness is specifically protected as a value by law.Even then there are strong pressures to reduce the wilderness area in national parks that are most popular for tourism.Remote national parks with very low tourism pressure may not need such additional protection.Similar challenges to those faced by Banff National Park can be reasonably anticipated for China’s most scenic and iconic national parks.To retain wilderness values in popular parks, a major national commitment is required as well as a strong regulatory framework.

2 Transboundary National Park Wilderness Approach in the North America

Canada and the US have long enjoyed a peaceful border.Together they created by national laws Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park.Canada has designated a portion of Waterton as legal wilderness while Glacier on the US side uses management planning to protect its substantial wilderness areas.These parks are also a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site as are several other iconic national parks in the Yellowstone to Yukon Corridor (Y2Y) — Yellowstone, Banff, Jasper,Kootenay, Yoho, and Nahanni.The later five are all in Canada and all have legally designated wilderness.Yellowstone has administratively protected wilderness.This has led to a proposal to think in terms of a World Heritage Complexes which would consist of interconnected national park wilderness areas along the Y2Y Corridor[16].Such transboundary approaches to wilderness could be of interest along on near China’s borders.

3 Wilderness in the US National Parks system

The role of wilderness in national parks in the USA is best understood with some cultural context.The wilderness concept and associated legislation evolved with the young and rapidly growing culture and nation of the United States beginning over 100 years ago.Essential to this is understanding the tension between road-building/infrastructure development and wilderness values.

The 19th century Industrial Revolution,driven economic growth, and the expansionist tendencies of a youthful United States of America across its vast country created many contentious and ill-conceived land use practices.Large wild areas were quickly transformed to human uses and are often degraded by ecologically damaging logging, mining and agricultural practices[17].

While early national parks stopped such activities, there was still a tendency towards prioritizing tourism development over protecting wilderness values in the first US national parks.When the world’s first national park was established in 1872 at Yellowstone, it was to be “a public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people”[18].The priority was human instead of wilderness protection.Tourists required hotels, campgrounds and shops, all of which required roads.Roads can bring great benefits, but they also fragment habitat, create pollution, drive species extinction, and always destroy natural beauty and solitude[19].

A national road-building spree accompanied the American love-affair with the automobile and national parks were not exempt.There were one million cars in 1913, and dramatically increased to 23 million in 16 years.The physical expansiveness of America, coupled with growing economic means and the American proclivity towards personal freedom and liberty, fueled this explosion of automobiles over the expansion of adequate public transportation.Therefore, thousands of kilometers of roads were built to service the hospitality and entertainment infrastructure to satisfy the demands of driving through and viewing the “pleasuring grounds.” Roadbuilding was almost entirely subsidized by the US government.

A major form of land management in the US is through the National Forest System, administered by the National Forest Service (USNFS) which is within the Department of Agriculture.It was created around the beginning of the 20th century to keep non-agricultural forest lands in public instead of private ownership.In 1915 the new US Forest Service authorized the building of campgrounds and cabins in federal areas, and in 1916 the US Congress allocated fully 15% of all federal highway construction funds to the Forest Service[20].In addition to tourism, other development required massive road building, especially commercial logging on Forest Service lands.

Massive dams were also built in the American west in the early 20th century.A controversy over a dam proposed to be built in the heart of Yosemite National Park generated significant public debate.The City of San Francisco wanted the Tuolumne River in the spectacular Hetch Hetchy Valley dammed for its water supply.A national controversy raged for 20 years over whether this should be allowed, but the conservationists lost.The dam was approved in 1913 and the valley was flooded[21].

As America was transformed by development, a distinction emerged between naturalness (Chinese: 自然性) and wildness(Chinese: 野性).Naturalness qualities are usually anthropogenically-derived, often found in highly managed parklands and beautiful urban green space and gardens.Wilderness values are those ecocentric attributes considered more free-willed (or self-determined), with the least amount of human intervention, including a recognition of an inherent spirit within and rights of nature to evolve on her/its’ own terms[22].

Some people regarded as dangerous and ultimately fatal to wilderness the virtually unchecked growth of industrial and commercial development in wildlands within and near formal protected areas.They felt that something specific was needed to protect those values.

3.1 Formally Protecting Wilderness Values in the US

The first wilderness protection law in North America was passed in the 1890s in New York State with the creation of the Adirondack Park to protect the headwaters of the Hudson River which flows to New York City.The theme adopted by this park is iconic in US conservation history:“Forever Wild”.

On US national lands, the concept of wilderness as a formal protected area emerged in the early years of the 20th century.It was first enunciated by civil society conservation leaders such as John Muir who argued for its protection in national parks.Muir founded the Sierra Club and led the ill-fated battle against the Hetch Hetchy dam.His love for the spirit and necessity of wilderness is the subject of considerable research and many books by and about him, which can perhaps be best summarized by a quote from his book,Our National Parks(1901): “Keep close to Nature’s heart, and break clear away once in a while, and climb a mountain or spend a week in the wood.Wash your spirit clean.” Aldo Leopold, an employee of the US Forest Service (USFS), argued for wilderness protection on USFS lands.Leopold’sSand County Almanac(1949) is a revered classic of American wilderness literature.In its’ foreword, he writes: “Like winds and sunsets, wild things were taken for granted until progress began to do away with them.Now we face the question whether a still higher ‘standard of living’ is worth its cost in things natural, wild and free.” Leopold and others successfully promoted the wilderness concept until the USFS designated (in 1924) three so-called“primitive” areas within the Gila National Forest(New Mexico), totaling 2,250 km2.Considered the first “wilderness” officially designated by the US national government, it was not protected by national law but rather by administrative fiat of the USFS[23].

A citizen-driven initiative to “protect wildness and wilderness” took hold.Leopold and others created The Wilderness Society.After decades of strategic and persistent advocacy primarily by civil society and some conservationinclined politicians, in 1964 the United States’Wilderness Actwas passed into law.It provides for legal wilderness protection to be overlaid on federal lands regardless of which Agency controls them, so it applies to both national park and national forests.Differing significantly from agency administrative actions, this was national legislation that can only be changed by a further act of Congress.Containing unusually poetic language to describe and differentiate wilderness and its role in the United States’ culture and approach to natural resource management, theWilderness Actwas the first national legislation in the world dedicated to the wilderness concept.In addition, the Act created the National Wilderness Preservation System(NWPS) and, upon its passage, many of the previously designated primitive areas were reclassified as national wilderness areas

The NWPS was initially composed of 54 designated areas across 13 States totaling 37,000 km2.These designations were overlaid on portions of federal lands managed by the National Parks Service and Fish and Wildlife Service (and since 1978 in the DOI’s Bureau of Land Management) and the US Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture.Today it consists of 803 areas in 44 US States and Territories, totaling almost 452,000 km2or 5% of the United States,over half of which is in the far northern State of Alaska[24].

3.2 Wilderness protection in US National Parks

Of the 803 areas of officially designated wilderness in the NWPS, 61 are located in 50 National Parks, covering a total area of 178,000 km2.To understand the US National Park System, it is important to note that there are 19 different named classifications of areas administered by the US National Park Service(USNPS), including National Seashores, Battlefields,Memorials, Monuments, Parkways, Wild and Scenic Rivers, and others.Of 425 individual units managed by the USNPS, there are 63 actual National Parks[25].

When one considers Yellowstone, Grand Canyon, Yosemite, Rocky Mountains, and Everglades, five of the most iconic US national parks, it becomes clear that a substantial amount of the land and waters within the NPS are managed as wilderness without being officially designated as such under theWilderness Act.This is because a Congressional order requires all US National Parks to evaluate their lands and waters for wilderness attributes and to categorize these areas as for“study” to be a wilderness area, and then“suitable”, “proposed”, “recommended”, or“designated”.Areas once categorized are to be managed as if they are already “designated”wilderness in order “to meet the letter and the spirit” of the 1964Wilderness Act[26].This management includes such things as no motorized vehicles, no permanent infrastructure, and application of the “minimum tool rule” ie, any management intervention (often referred to as‘stewardship’) is to be conducted in the least intrusive and non-mechanized manner.

Yellowstone National Park is the most famous of all US parks.Since 1972, some 8,093 km2(90%) of its total 8,900 km2have been“recommended” for wilderness designation and are therefore managed as wilderness.However, the US Congress has not yet acted on the recommendation to legally bring the land into the USWPS.similarly,in the Grand Canyon National Park, which is the second most visited National Park in the US, 93%of its area are proposed for and managed as wilderness but are yet to be designated[27].

Conversely, the iconic Yosemite National Park (California) is 3,082 km2in area, of which 2,851 km2(93%) is officially designated wilderness under the Wilderness Act[28].Rocky Mountain National Park (Colorado) ranks third in popularity,with almost 5,000,000 visitors in 2019.Of its’1,075 km2, 1,008 km2(93%) was officially designated as wilderness in in 2009, culminating 35 years of persistent work by wilderness advocates[29-30]..

Special mention should be made here for Everglades National Park (Florida), which is created in 1934 long before theWilderness Act.It was the first US National Park expressly established to preserve its unique wilderness,created for the sole purpose of protecting a fragile ecosystem.The 5,260 km2Marjorie Stonemam Douglas Wilderness area within the park was designated in 1978 and is the largest designated wilderness east of the 100th Meridian[31].

3.3 Indigenous Peoples and US national park wilderness

All lands within what is now the United States were formerly the territory of Native Americans, Native Alaskans, and Native Hawaiians.In general, the US has a troubled history in its relations with these Indigenous Peoples.This history extends to US protected areas.TheWilderness Actof 1964 omitted mention of Native Americans and early wilderness designations and wilderness management directives did not involve consultation or collaboration with Native Americans to account for their needs, uses,and heritage.The possible exception to this was the recognition by government of the need to protect the considerable cultural and heritage value of Native American dwellings and prehistoric sites in the Southwest.Despite the fact that this oversight was eventually corrected, it created an initial image of wilderness that has taken many years to erase,that of restricted areas created for elite, Europeanheritage recreationists.Reparations of many sorts are needed and are being addressed.Similar issues confront many protected areas around the world[32]。

Indigenous People were recognized in theAlaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act(ANILCA) of 1980.ANILCAcreated new designations of federal protected areas on 45%(404,685 km2) of the state, including 230,670 km2of designated wilderness managed by all federal land management agencies.Some 95% of all National Parks in Alaska is under wilderness management.Considerable consultation with Native Alaskans resulted inANILCAproviding for subsistence uses within wilderness and other protected areas, with significant variants to theWilderness Actincluding motorized transport(primarily snow machines) and semi-permanent tented camps and platforms for subsistence hunting, fishing and gathering[33].In addition, comanagement with traditional owners is underway in some NPS lands, such as Bears Ears National Monument (Utah).

There are formal efforts by the USNPS to better engage with Indigenous Peoples.The American Indian Liaison Office within the NPS was officially established to serve tribal governments and tribal members with regard to natural resources, park policy, park units, park practice, land restoration, and the resolution of long-standing issues between Native Americans and USNPS.Progress, while long overdue, is finally being realized.

4 Wilderness and China’s National Parks System and Suggestions

4.1 Wilderness and National Parks in China

In China, the modern concept of wilderness was initially introduced through western nature literature and gradually became known to conservationists and nature lovers.In the early 21st century, Cheng Hong, Hou Wenhui and others translated some American natural literature classics such asWilderness&The American MindandThe Singing Wildernessinto Chinese.They also wroteReturn to the Wildernessand other books to introduce American nature literature, which gave an insight into the wilderness concept that had an exotic cultural background[34-36].

In modern China’s nature protection world,wilderness is an external concept and has not been officially confirmed by domestic laws and policies.In recent years, however, circumstances converged to increase the understanding of wilderness within China.International cooperation on this subject accelerated when experts from the WILD Foundation, Wilderness Foundation Global and the Wilderness Specialist Group (of IUCN) offered their expertise to Chinese scholars, practitioners and government leaders.Further, and most importantly, the establishment of ecological civilization as an important strategy of national leaders and the central government provided the best framework that encouraged both Chinese interest in the concept and the exchange and cooperation of relevant information between the East and the West.

Through this process, the term “wilderness”has increasingly entered into the awareness of China’s nature protection policy makers, researchers,practitioners and enthusiasts.However, there are still different understandings around the concept of wilderness, this is related to the lack of research into wilderness science, especially the biologicalphysical dimension.Cultural differences also affect comprehension and the development of a better,deeper understanding of the term.

In recent years, Chinese scholars have conducted pioneering and important research from different perspectives on how the concept of wilderness can be applied to China.Most prominently, using the experience of the international wilderness mapping methods, Yang Rui and Cao Yue from Tsinghua University drew the first national-scale wilderness map of mainland China, thus initially identifying the distribution of China’s wilderness[37-38].The results of their research indicated that China has a large coverage of de-facto wilderness of different qualities.Based on such results, these Chinese scholars called for the establishment of a China Wilderness Protection System.Scholars in other fields, such as Gao Shan from Soochow University, have begun to explore the concept of wilderness in the context of Chinese culture from the perspectives of philosophy and environmental aesthetics.In a bottom-up approach, as part of the newly-launched Nature,Wilderness and Civilization online centre, they use trans-disciplinary exchanges, newsletters, debates and other practices to promote the goal of a China’s wilderness act.

In 2013, China formally introduced the establishment of a national park system, forming a new system and model for nature protection which requires enhanced capabilities of environment governance.This national park system is established to protect the most valuable natural places and save them for future generations.According to the official definition, National Parks are the most valuable natural ecological areas in China, protecting extremely rich and important biodiversity.In September 2017, theOverall Plan for Establishing the National Park Systemwas officially released, clarifying the positioning of National Parks in China’s complex protected area system, establishing that its primary function is to protect the authenticity and integrity of important natural ecosystems by: using the most strict and overall protection; using a systematic approach to protecting natural ecosystems; and preserving comprehensive functions such as scientific research, education, and recreation.In June 2019,the Guiding Opinions on Establishing a Natural Reserve System with National Parks as the Main Bodyproposed the basic principles of strict protection and inheritance from generation to generation[38].So far, National Park is the most important type of protected areas in China and, alongside Nature Reserves and Nature Parks, is one of the three new major categories of protected areas.

The current definition and protection goals of national parks in China are very similar to the international concept of wilderness, especially the authenticity, integrity, and strictest protection requirements that internationally are the essential attributes of protecting wilderness.Considering the current ten national park pilot projects, especially the national park pilot projects in the west such as the Three Rivers Source National Park and Qilian Mountain National Park, these national parks geographically cover the most important wilderness in western China.

During the preliminary completion of the national park system reform, numerous studies have determined that the current Chinese national parks still have many shortcomings such as the scientific selection of candidate sites, national park boundaries, rational zoning, and scientific management[39-40].Existing national park pilot areas mostly follow the previousRegulations on Nature Reservesin creating boundary delineation and zoning, and lack sufficient scientific basis for the expansion of protected areas, setting boundaries and zoning, and conducting management.Therefore, the international experience, especially the United States, Canada and other countries that have established relatively mature wilderness protection systems, could provide helpful models for the refinement of Chinese national parks system.

4.2 Suggestions on Chian Wilderness protection

1) Mainstream the wilderness values in China and integrate them into Eco-Civilaztion.As the world-famous ecological ethicist Holmes RolstonⅢ noted that wilderness is essential for the ecological civilization, and adequate wilderness protection is the sign of the maturity of ecological civilization.Wildernss protection should be important part of nature conservation in China,ecpecially it could be integraded into “rbon peaking”and “carbon neutrality” targets, and biodiverstiy policies as well.According to chinese wilderness and national parks scholars Yang Rui and Cao Yue from Tsinghua university, the mainstreaming process of wildernss in china should also include the populization of wilderness protection in the pubic, which could greatly help to build up a very important social foudation for undertanding,supporting and spontaneous actions for protecting wild nature in China[41].

2) Strengthen wilderness inventory investigation across the country, which would enable a data base for China’s wilderness areas and their locations, values, characteristics, etc.Based on the database, it is sugested that a designation and classificaiton system of different China’s wilderness areas could be used for adaptive planning and management accordingly.Within the inventory investigation, it is relatively urgent to strengthen wilderness mapping and planning research on a regional scale, using international wilderness identification methods to provide a new scientific paradigm that addresses the protection gaps in Chinese national parks system and other protected areas, as weill as other land for spatial planning.This would also ensure that important authenticity and integrity of the ecosystem is fully included into the scope of protection of Chinese national parks,and appropriate planning and managment in other spaces of different landscapes.

3) When determining the distinction between the core area and the controlling area of the national park, it is recommended to scientifically and dynamically adjust the functional zoning by first determining the characteristics and values of the specific wilderness.This allows for the best national park zoning control measures, thus also clarifying the prohibition, restriction, and permission of human activities based on principles such as the Limited Acceptable Changes (LAC).

4) To strengthen scientific management of China’s national parks, it is recommended to incorporate the principles and monitoring methods of well-developed, best-practice international wilderness management.For example, by determining the value, quality, and attributes of wild nature, we can ensure the protection of the ecological authenticity in national parks; and by developing appropriate wilderness recreation usage and management, we can enhance public appreciation of the aesthetics of wild nature in national parks.Drawing on the experience and lessons from North America, popular national parks should balance wilderness recreation and tourism demand from the beginning, focusing on ecology and avoiding the dominance of tourism development.In terms of management, we should learn from the international principles of using the least tools and managing interventions in a minimally invasive and non motorized manner.In the process of adaptive management, at the beginning, indigenous peoples in protected areas should be included in the governance community,respecting their traditional knowledge, and maintaining their sacred values regarding the wilderness.

Internationally, unlike other types of protected areas, national wilderness legislation is only in 11 countries.However, an additional 37 countries protect wilderness in provincial or statelevel legislation.Administrative designation, or zoning, occurs in an additional 23 other countries.The wilderness concept is being rapidly adopted,showing great acceptance of its concept and usefulness.In 1989, there were 44 wilderness areas registered within the IUCN system and, as of 2015,there were some 3,000 units thus identified.

Because of the definition of China’s national parks, it appears these parks will cover most of China’s de-facto wilderness.By fully absorbing and then adapting international experience in wilderness science and management, China’s park managers and policy-makers can be working in accord with internationally accepted procedures to gain valuable experience for the scientific construction, management and long-term development of China’s national parks.

There is strong support for enacting China’s national park law[42].To strengthen China’s wilderness research, the establishment of a ‘China Wilderness Protection System’ can also be included in the scope of China’s national park law.Furthermore, China’s future work and practices on wilderness, especially wilderness protection in the national parks system, could not only protect biodiversity, beauty and authenticity, it would also provide world-class wilderness experiences to Chinese and international tourists, a rapidly expanding business sector.

5 Conclusion

We suggest that legally protecting wilderness could be a useful dimension of China’s national park-centric protected areas system.Wilderness designation in China’s national parks could be done in similar ways as Canada and the United States do.Protected area professionals in all three countries have a great deal to learn from each other, as recognized by a rich history of interchange through formal protocols agreed between China，the United States and Canada.

In both Canada and the United States, the wilderness concept was developed and institutionalized because of the threats posed by accelerating construction of intrusive and damaging infrastructure, especially roads.China’s most popular national parks may also face similar by inventible tourism pressures.Wilderness designation ensure the protection of some areas against heavy tourist infrastructures, while citizen visitation could be still properly managed to allow for a primitive experience.

Given the evolution of ecological science and landscape planning in the past 20 years, China could now take advantage of the wilderness concept early in its national park reform.This will secure large landscapes, and more quickly, directly and efficiently help address the economically and socially disastrous threats of climate breakdown,species loss, and the threat of further pandemics.

In addition to scholarly interest, the wilderness concept enjoys a growing recognition as an important tool to protect China’s natural beauty,the authenticity and integrity of its wildness, and its globally and nationally important ecological services.Deployment of the wilderness concept with Chinese characteristics, in harmony with traditional local communities, would be fully in accord with international protected area standards and methods.

China’s visionary national policy of Ecocivilization recognizes the necessity of both protecting red line areas, as well as honoring the unity of people and nature.Putting the wilderness concept to use in China’s National Parks could help create and maintain a Beautiful China.