徐誠(chéng),嚴(yán)麗鋒,王心如,顧愛(ài)華
(南京醫(yī)科大學(xué) 公共衛(wèi)生學(xué)院,江蘇 南京 211100)
人類(lèi)XRCC1基因是參與DNA單鏈斷裂修復(fù)(single- strand break repair,SSBR)過(guò)程中被克隆的第一個(gè)基因,位于19號(hào)染色體長(zhǎng)臂1區(qū)3帶2亞帶,有31.9 kb大小,包含了17個(gè)外顯子[1];其小鼠同源基因位于7號(hào)染色體,有26 kb大小[2],外顯子的位置與人類(lèi)的相似[1]。XRCC1基因在人類(lèi)和小鼠有84%相同的編碼區(qū)域,并且外顯子和內(nèi)含子高度保守,編碼的蛋白有86%相同的氨基酸序列。
目前,人類(lèi)XRCC1蛋白發(fā)現(xiàn)有三個(gè)活性結(jié)構(gòu)域,一個(gè)核定位信號(hào)區(qū)域和一個(gè)酪蛋白激酶(CK2)磷酸化位點(diǎn)[3]。具體是氨基端結(jié)構(gòu)域(NTD,1- 183氨基酸區(qū)域),乳腺癌易感基因羧基端1(BRCT1, 315- 403氨基酸區(qū)域),乳腺癌易感基因羧基端2(BRCT2, 538- 633氨基酸區(qū)域),核定位信號(hào)(NLS,nuclear localization signal)區(qū)域和酪蛋白激酶(CK2)磷酸化位點(diǎn)(圖1)。其中,NTD對(duì)DNA聚合酶β(POLβ)具有高度的親和力[4- 6],可形成一個(gè)包繞有缺口DNA的“三明治”結(jié)構(gòu)。BRCT結(jié)構(gòu)域主要是在參與DNA損傷應(yīng)答的蛋白質(zhì)中被發(fā)現(xiàn),功能類(lèi)似于磷酸化依賴(lài)蛋白相互作用結(jié)構(gòu)域[7]。BRCT1是DNA損傷后的修復(fù)及復(fù)制所必需的[8- 9],可與多聚ADP核糖聚合酶1(PARP1)和多聚ADP核糖聚合酶2(PARP2)相互作用[10- 11],并且能夠維持高效率SSBR和細(xì)胞存活[8]。NTD和BRCT1之間的連接區(qū)域被證實(shí)是可以和其他蛋白相互作用的結(jié)構(gòu)域,即核定位信號(hào)區(qū)域,比如能與脫嘌呤/脫嘧啶核酸內(nèi)切酶(APE1)、羥基鳥(niǎo)嘌呤糖苷酶1(OGG1)[12]和增殖細(xì)胞核抗原(PCNA)結(jié)合[13]。CK2在染色體DNA斷裂修復(fù)和維持基因的完整性方面有著直接作用,并且這個(gè)功能是通過(guò)與XRCC1磷酸化而實(shí)現(xiàn)[3]。
研究認(rèn)為XRCC1與POLβ和LIG3有較強(qiáng)的親和力,提示XRCC1作為支架蛋白或臨時(shí)對(duì)接平臺(tái)來(lái)參與堿基切除修復(fù)(BER)這個(gè)過(guò)程。然而,體外實(shí)驗(yàn)觀察到XRCC1能構(gòu)成二聚體和異四聚體,提示XRCC1復(fù)合物可能包含更多的因子[13- 16]。體內(nèi)研究顯示BER過(guò)程中的酶能結(jié)合到DNA,進(jìn)而充當(dāng)修復(fù)中間物來(lái)防止細(xì)胞遺傳毒性和致突變毒性的發(fā)生,直到傳遞到下一個(gè)修復(fù)酶[17]。
XRCC1在復(fù)制灶(foci)能夠與細(xì)胞周期蛋白A免疫共沉淀,提示XRCC1參與DNA修復(fù)中的復(fù)制過(guò)POLβ:DNA聚合酶β;PCNA:增殖細(xì)胞核抗原;APE1:脫嘌呤/脫嘧啶核酸內(nèi)切酶1;PARP1:聚腺苷酸二磷酸核糖轉(zhuǎn)移酶1;PARP2:聚腺苷酸二磷酸核糖轉(zhuǎn)移酶2;PNKP:多聚合苷酸激酶3磷酸化酶;APLF:aprataxin和PNKP樣因子;Lig3:DNA連接酶Ⅲ;APTX:aprataxin;N- terminal domain:氨基段結(jié)構(gòu)域;NLS(nuclear localization signal):核定位信號(hào);BRCT1:乳腺癌抑癌基因1羧基端;BRCT2:乳腺癌抑癌基因2羧基端;CK2:酪蛋白激酶程[13,18]。從S期細(xì)胞中分離出與XRCC1和尿嘧啶DNA糖苷酶(UNG2)相關(guān)的蛋白復(fù)合體。共定位實(shí)驗(yàn)顯示在復(fù)制灶的內(nèi)部和外部均有XRCC1,多聚合苷酸激酶3磷酸化酶(PNKP)和POLβ,而UNG2只與復(fù)制機(jī)制相關(guān)。因此,不同復(fù)合體的BER效率也是不同的。在BER過(guò)程中,XRCC1復(fù)合體比UNG2復(fù)合體更高效,提示S期存在獨(dú)特的BER復(fù)合體[19- 20]。
A).XRCC1蛋白和其他蛋白相互作用的區(qū)域;B).XRCC1蛋白結(jié)構(gòu)域;C).3個(gè)常見(jiàn)的XRCC1突變體
圖1XRCC1蛋白結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)示圖
XRCC1和LIG3較強(qiáng)的相互作用以及發(fā)現(xiàn)少量XRCC1復(fù)合體具有AP核酸內(nèi)切酶活性,提示該復(fù)合體除了PNKP和POLβ,也包含LIG3和APE1[19- 22]。當(dāng)損傷的程度達(dá)到一定的閾值后,該復(fù)合體能在DNA復(fù)制、LP(long patch) BER和其他修復(fù)通路中發(fā)揮作用。
PCNA在DNA復(fù)制和LP BER過(guò)程中起到中心支架蛋白的作用,另外一些BER蛋白已被證實(shí)能和PCNA免疫共沉淀[13,23- 24]。研究顯示,PCNA能具體結(jié)合到XRCC1的氨基酸166- 310區(qū)域,但在細(xì)胞S期卻未發(fā)現(xiàn)。XRCC1通過(guò)BRCT1結(jié)構(gòu)域和PCNA在氨基酸310- 436區(qū)域存在復(fù)制灶的共定位,提示在復(fù)制灶上XRCC1可能與其他蛋白相互作用,而不是PCNA[13,25]。另外,在復(fù)制灶發(fā)現(xiàn)XRCC1氨基酸310- 436區(qū)域與PARP1、N- 烷基嘧啶DNA糖基化酶(MPG)、UNG2和PCNA相互作用[19,23,26- 29]。
XRCC1基因全身敲除的小鼠表現(xiàn)胚胎致死,可能是SSBR能力的缺失和隨后的細(xì)胞凋亡發(fā)生所導(dǎo)致[30]。單倍劑量不足的敲基因小鼠在正常飼養(yǎng)條件下,表現(xiàn)出生命周期、體重、器官功能、血細(xì)胞形態(tài)、染色體狀態(tài)等正常,并且未觀察到自發(fā)腫瘤的明顯增加和不完整的染色體結(jié)構(gòu)[31],提示在無(wú)毒害環(huán)境下大約50%的XRCC1蛋白足夠維持動(dòng)物基因組的完整。而且之前研究顯示大約10%蛋白水平足夠維持胚胎發(fā)育和分娩后發(fā)育,并且通過(guò)非定量差的細(xì)胞毒性檢測(cè)發(fā)現(xiàn),這些轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠的成纖維細(xì)胞對(duì)甲磺甲酸酯呈現(xiàn)很少或基本沒(méi)有敏感性的增加[32]。進(jìn)一步評(píng)價(jià)這些轉(zhuǎn)基因動(dòng)物發(fā)現(xiàn),與同窩出生的比較,體重表現(xiàn)出大約25%的下降,因而XRCC1缺失對(duì)生物體影響的具體機(jī)制仍不明確[33]。
XRCC1作為BER過(guò)程中的支架蛋白維持基因組的穩(wěn)定,常見(jiàn)的3個(gè)XRCC1多態(tài)性Arg194Trp(rs1799782)、Arg280His(rs25489)和Arg399Gln(rs25487)與疾病相關(guān)聯(lián)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)Arg194Trp突變體能保護(hù)由DNA損傷誘導(dǎo)劑引起基因組紊亂,而另兩個(gè)突變體與降低基因組的穩(wěn)定有關(guān)[34]。XRCC1多態(tài)性的變異影響B(tài)ER的效率可能因?yàn)橛绊懥说鞍着c蛋白的相互作用,具體表現(xiàn)為影響了XRCC1的募集能力,或間接改變了BER酶活性。體外實(shí)驗(yàn)顯示,EM9細(xì)胞,一種XRCC1蛋白缺陷細(xì)胞株和構(gòu)建XRCC1多態(tài)性的細(xì)胞證實(shí)Arg280His和Arg399Gln分別能積累更少或解離由長(zhǎng)波黑斑效應(yīng)紫外線誘導(dǎo)的DNA損傷。單細(xì)胞凝膠電泳顯示這些突變體對(duì)于過(guò)氧化氫誘導(dǎo)的氧化損傷在修復(fù)水平有微弱的差別,支持了XRCC1的細(xì)微改變可能影響DNA的修復(fù),進(jìn)而影響基因組的穩(wěn)定[25,35]。
堿基損傷、無(wú)堿基位點(diǎn)和單鏈斷裂可以由內(nèi)源性活性物質(zhì)和DNA錯(cuò)配復(fù)制持續(xù)產(chǎn)生。XRCC1改變可能改變基因組的穩(wěn)定性,進(jìn)而導(dǎo)致疾病或癌癥。XRCC1的3個(gè)突變體與癌癥的關(guān)聯(lián)有廣泛報(bào)道。然而,流行病學(xué)薈萃分析至今也沒(méi)有得出XRCC1變異與癌癥明確發(fā)生與否的結(jié)論[36- 38]。這可能與研究中人群樣本的數(shù)目和基因SNP顯著的不同有關(guān)。比如,在亞洲人群突變純合子Arg280His觀察到與乳腺癌有關(guān),但在高加索人群中沒(méi)有被發(fā)現(xiàn)[39]。突變純合子Arg194Trp在亞洲人群中能增加罹患肺癌的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),但在高加索人群中能降低這種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[40]。另外,Arg399Gln多態(tài)性與晚期非小細(xì)胞肺癌患者對(duì)鉑類(lèi)藥物化療的敏感性相關(guān)[41],有可能成為鉑類(lèi)藥物化療后生存期的預(yù)測(cè)指標(biāo)[42]。
XRCC1能作為酶的輔因子來(lái)影響DNA單鏈損傷末端修復(fù)進(jìn)程,XRCC1功能的改變能導(dǎo)致疾病。神經(jīng)元條件敲除XRCC1的小鼠能影響神經(jīng)的發(fā)育和導(dǎo)致DNA鏈斷裂的積累,初步認(rèn)為XRCC1突變體能導(dǎo)致神經(jīng)退行性疾病和膠質(zhì)瘤的發(fā)生[43]。最近的流行病學(xué)研究提示XRCC1的Arg399Gln突變體和帕金森病、散發(fā)型肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化和膠質(zhì)瘤有關(guān)[44- 47],而Arg194Trp突變體發(fā)現(xiàn)能降低膠質(zhì)瘤的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[48]。
XRCC1的突變體可能改變XRCC1形成蛋白復(fù)合體的功能,進(jìn)而影響DNA損傷時(shí)復(fù)合體的募集以及相互作用蛋白酶的活性,這都可能導(dǎo)致癌癥的發(fā)生。
XRCC1作為在DNA修復(fù)過(guò)程中的支架蛋白,對(duì)DNA修復(fù)過(guò)程有著重要影響,但是具體的分子機(jī)制還沒(méi)有研究透徹。另外,流行病學(xué)研究也沒(méi)有明確得出人群中XRCC1的突變體與疾病是否有關(guān)聯(lián)。動(dòng)物和細(xì)胞模型均在不同角度和不同程度揭示了XRCC1在生物體中的作用,但仍需更多研究。研究XRCC1多態(tài)性和疾病易感特征的聯(lián)系有助于從分子和細(xì)胞水平提高疾病的早期診斷率、治療有效率和預(yù)后,對(duì)于篩查易感人群、早期預(yù)防及臨床治療有重要意義。
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