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是中央控制,還是地方獨(dú)立——政治影響下的財(cái)政分權(quán)檢驗(yàn)

2016-06-01 10:49:25陳志廣南京大學(xué)政府管理學(xué)院江蘇南京210023
關(guān)鍵詞:中央委員分權(quán)影響力

陳志廣(南京大學(xué)政府管理學(xué)院,江蘇南京210023)

是中央控制,還是地方獨(dú)立——政治影響下的財(cái)政分權(quán)檢驗(yàn)

陳志廣
(南京大學(xué)政府管理學(xué)院,江蘇南京210023)

摘要:本文以收入、支出、自主三種財(cái)政分權(quán)指標(biāo)為因變量,引入來源于中央委員的地區(qū)政治影響力指標(biāo),考察了我國還極少研究的財(cái)政分權(quán)決定因素。政治影響力對財(cái)政分權(quán)發(fā)揮直接的負(fù)向作用,這表明中央借助中央委員的政治權(quán)力影響,使財(cái)政資源向中央集中。政治影響力對行政政府和行政官員發(fā)揮間接型的正向調(diào)節(jié)作用,這表明行政力量在關(guān)聯(lián)政治權(quán)力的激勵和保障下,能夠?yàn)榈胤骄鹑〉礁嘭?cái)政資源。這些證據(jù)表明,推進(jìn)財(cái)政等分權(quán)改革,優(yōu)化中央—地方關(guān)系,不能忽視深層次的政治、行政體制改革。

關(guān)鍵詞:財(cái)政分權(quán);財(cái)政自主;政治影響力;中央—地方關(guān)系;中央委員;行政力量

一、引言與文獻(xiàn)回顧

財(cái)政分權(quán)是中國學(xué)術(shù)界的熱點(diǎn)議題,其影響效果為大量文獻(xiàn)所探討,但本身決定因素的研究卻屈指可數(shù)。財(cái)政分權(quán)是政治經(jīng)濟(jì)系統(tǒng)內(nèi)生的,來源決定效果,所以其本身決定因素的研究也影響其效果研究的有效性。而且最令人著迷的研究課題是,中國與世界上其他國家不同,其在不斷調(diào)整財(cái)政分權(quán)的同時,始終都保持著政治上的集權(quán),那政治集權(quán)是否影響財(cái)政分權(quán),如何影響?下面,本文即嘗試從政治角度來考察中國財(cái)政分權(quán)的決定因素。與已有的研究相比,本文的貢獻(xiàn)是引入了一種來源于中國共產(chǎn)黨中央委員會、包含等級權(quán)力和關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)內(nèi)容的政治影響力指標(biāo),并證實(shí)其多種作用。中國是一個權(quán)力型社會,中國共產(chǎn)黨在各種政治經(jīng)濟(jì)生活中發(fā)揮著舉足輕重的作用,所以本文研究對于把握中國其他各種政治經(jīng)濟(jì)規(guī)律同樣具有重要價值。

不僅在國內(nèi),即使在國外,財(cái)政分權(quán)決定因素的定量研究都極少[1]。其中大部分是適用Oates等傳統(tǒng)分權(quán)理論的研究,專門檢驗(yàn)規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)和異質(zhì)性等因素、以及國民收入和城鎮(zhèn)化等常見變量的影響[2-11]。傳統(tǒng)分權(quán)理論認(rèn)為,地方分權(quán)單位的優(yōu)勢是接近選民,了解選民的偏好,因而容易為地方選民提供差異化的公共服務(wù),而且分權(quán)促成了不同地方和不同層級間的政府競爭,有利于約束各級政府的不當(dāng)膨脹,激勵他們?yōu)檫x民提供更多、更好的公共服務(wù)。不過地方分權(quán)單位的不足是,難以充分利用規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)、外部經(jīng)濟(jì)等好處,也加大了協(xié)調(diào)、合作等成本。所以綜合而言,合理的分權(quán)水平是以上這些成本、收益的權(quán)衡[12]。

對于傳統(tǒng)分權(quán)理論,Besley和Coate提出尖銳批評:異質(zhì)性和規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)、外部經(jīng)濟(jì)等既非分權(quán)的充分條件,亦非必要條件,因?yàn)橹醒胝瑯涌梢蕴峁┎町惢墓卜?wù),地方政府同樣可以通過市場購買等手段規(guī)避規(guī)模不經(jīng)濟(jì)和外部不經(jīng)濟(jì)。所以他們認(rèn)為,只有在政治經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的框架內(nèi),分權(quán)才可能得到圓滿解答[13]。不過,政治經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)在理論研究上固然可以構(gòu)造各種精致的分權(quán)模型,但到經(jīng)驗(yàn)研究上,操作起來并不容易。這是由于政治因素很難被精確量化,同時在國家內(nèi),很多政治因素在樣本間和時間上又不具有明顯的差異性,而到國家間,大部分政治制度及文化又具有實(shí)質(zhì)的差異性,所以相關(guān)研究的成果更顯珍稀,現(xiàn)在可見的還主要停留在賦值法、特別是啞變量的層次上。國內(nèi)王安和魏建檢驗(yàn)過省委常委的交流比例,其負(fù)向作用于收入分權(quán),但正向作用于支出分權(quán)。他們認(rèn)為,前者是因?yàn)楫惖毓賳T難以被本地精英俘虜,更多地代表了中央的意愿,因而地方向中央貢獻(xiàn)更多資源,后者是因?yàn)楫惖毓賳T可以憑借人脈關(guān)系等為本地帶來中央補(bǔ)助等資源,所以地方支出得到擴(kuò)張[3]。國外研究檢驗(yàn)過的政治因素包括:公民直接投票[14]、公民動議[15]和一般的民主等[6,11],都被證實(shí)對分權(quán)有正向作用,這些是普通居民等社會力量相信自己能夠更加有效地控制本地政府,故提出更多、更高的公共服務(wù)要求,相應(yīng)地帶來地方政府?dāng)U張。國家和地區(qū)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人存在重要影響,美國擁有否決權(quán)的州長傾向于將地方支出集中到州層面上[16],拉美各國分權(quán)程度取決于總統(tǒng)與州長之間的權(quán)力對比[17],這些是領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人自我逐利的結(jié)果,他們通過對政治權(quán)力的杠桿性運(yùn)用,為己方攫取到更多財(cái)政資源,這樣可以為自己拉到更多的政治支持;在基本的制度層面上,聯(lián)邦制的國家形式[6,17]、普通法的法律淵源[6],也被證實(shí)傾向于提高分權(quán)程度。由于政治制度和結(jié)構(gòu)的巨大差異,國外研究及變量不能直接適用于中國,但一些基本規(guī)律應(yīng)該會相通。比如所引文獻(xiàn)共同的解釋是:在政府—社會間、政府間關(guān)系中,誰在相對意義上有權(quán),誰就可以使資金配置有利于自己。

二、中央—地方關(guān)系模型

在現(xiàn)有條件下,中國能夠捕捉、也適于進(jìn)行經(jīng)驗(yàn)研究的政治因素是高級領(lǐng)導(dǎo)——中央委員的權(quán)力影響。中央委員均相對完整地公開履歷信息,且委員會內(nèi)部存在明顯的中央、地方和等級等區(qū)分,所以中央、地方間的權(quán)力差異容易被捕捉到。但復(fù)雜的是,中央委員具有多重身份,權(quán)力來源和負(fù)責(zé)對象并不清晰①在前面所引的拉美研究中,中央領(lǐng)導(dǎo)來源于全國選舉,地方領(lǐng)導(dǎo)來源于地方選舉,權(quán)力來源和負(fù)責(zé)對象相對清晰,因而領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的目標(biāo)和行為容易預(yù)測[17]。。比如一般為中央委員的省委書記和省長:一方面,他們的權(quán)力有部分是來源于地方,至少在名義上,他們當(dāng)選是因?yàn)榈胤绞组L的身份,所以他們是地方的“代表”,應(yīng)該服務(wù)于地方;但另一方面,他們又不是由地方直選產(chǎn)生,實(shí)際上是由上級任命,所以他們又是“中央”的委員,是中央在地方的代理者,甚至是“管家”,理應(yīng)向中央負(fù)責(zé)。這就帶來疑惑:中央委員究竟是維護(hù)中央利益,還是追逐地方利益?中央委員會究竟是中央控制地方的制度形式,還是地方影響國家的政策舞臺?中央委員究竟是盡可能維持中央對權(quán)力的集中,還是不斷促成向地方放權(quán)?中央委員的多重身份、多種行為、不同影響,實(shí)質(zhì)是中央—地方關(guān)系在政治經(jīng)濟(jì)維度上的表現(xiàn),而在相關(guān)研究中,政治經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的解釋性模型可以被簡單歸類為中央控制和地方獨(dú)立兩種[18]。

中央控制模型強(qiáng)調(diào)中央在政府間關(guān)系中的主導(dǎo)性地位,認(rèn)為中央政府獨(dú)立自主于地方、部門、社會集團(tuán)等各種專門“領(lǐng)地”,能夠抵制違背中央目標(biāo)的各種狹隘性利益。而中央委員,特別是省委書記、省長等地方大員,正是中央控制地方的關(guān)鍵環(huán)節(jié)。鄧小平說過,“中央的話不聽,國務(wù)院的話不聽,這不行?!瓕τ诓宦犞醒搿鴦?wù)院的話的,處理要堅(jiān)決,可以先打招呼,不行就調(diào)人換頭頭”[19]。面對強(qiáng)大的等級體系,中央委員的個體力量總是微弱,所以不能明目張膽地?fù)p害中央利益,而且在等級體系內(nèi)部,等級雖然限制行動者行動,但也賦予行動者價值。省長等的主要價值,源于他們是等級體系的一份子,他們的定位就是相對于中央的“臣屬”和相對于地方的“統(tǒng)治者”,為中央而管理地方。貫徹執(zhí)行中央政策是制度賦予他們的根本任務(wù),能否維護(hù)中央利益是組織評估他們的基本標(biāo)準(zhǔn),特別是部分委員如果想在等級上更上一層樓,那高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)地完成中央任務(wù)更是必須要顯示的價值信號。相反,省長等如果沒有中央委員等在等級體系中的“位子”和“名號”,那他們的政治價值就大打折扣,中央政策的貫徹執(zhí)行不需要他們,他們能夠?yàn)榈胤剿玫臋?quán)力和關(guān)系資源也迅速貶值,甚至是由于政治斗爭和管理需要等考慮,他們遺留的政治影響還要被迅速清除。因此,出于自我利益的考慮,當(dāng)然也是受到等級制度的約束,中央委員的基本職責(zé)是維護(hù)中央利益,當(dāng)?shù)胤脚c中央發(fā)生沖突時,壓制、犧牲地方利益是他們的可行選擇。

中央能夠通過中央委員控制地方,有賴于其擁有的一系列政策工具。最重要的還是對人事的控制,從中央委員延伸到下面所有級別的官員,一些學(xué)者甚至認(rèn)為這是中國分權(quán)改革能夠成功的基礎(chǔ)[20]。中國實(shí)行“黨管干部”的人事制度管理原則,中央依托于黨的組織部門,借助于層級原則,即下級黨政機(jī)關(guān)主要官員的任免、考核、交流和監(jiān)督受上級黨政機(jī)關(guān)控制,實(shí)現(xiàn)對地方各級官員的支配和激勵。其中突出的如“提名清單”制度①提名清單(nomenklatura)源于對前蘇聯(lián)和東歐等國家的研究,意指由黨的機(jī)構(gòu)行使任命權(quán)的主要職務(wù)清單。,它決定了中國私營部門以外所有精英的職業(yè)升遷,進(jìn)入不了由上級黨組織提名的清單,精英在系統(tǒng)內(nèi)的晉升也就中止。像省委書記、省長等關(guān)鍵領(lǐng)導(dǎo),由政治局、乃至常務(wù)委員會提名,其他省部級領(lǐng)導(dǎo)也必須首先進(jìn)入向中央委員會報(bào)告的清單,以下級別的官員則再按照等級原則類推[21]。除了人事,財(cái)政也是中央控制地方的一般性工具。中國自1994年后在財(cái)政收入上實(shí)行分稅制,但地方對于稅基和稅率沒有決定權(quán),且量大、容易征收的稅收都已經(jīng)屬于中央稅或者中央地方分享稅,地方稅只能集中于量小、難以征收的稅種。參見后面表2的財(cái)政自主指標(biāo),絕大多數(shù)省份都不能做到財(cái)政自給自足,所以地方政府的職責(zé)履行有賴于大量中央補(bǔ)助的發(fā)放。特別是很多基層政府,連基本運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)都離不開補(bǔ)助,一些基層政府甚至是每個月都在巴望著上級趕快下?lián)苎a(bǔ)助,好發(fā)放職員的基本工資,乃至是以往欠薪[22]。與地方財(cái)政處處捉襟見肘形成鮮明對比的是中央,其依托于國稅系統(tǒng)和補(bǔ)助配置部門的組織優(yōu)勢,卻已經(jīng)擁有越來越豐富的財(cái)政控制工具,比如稅收分享、稅收返回、

專項(xiàng)補(bǔ)助等的撥付時間、項(xiàng)目類別和附加性條件等,可用來靈活應(yīng)對不同地方的不同履責(zé)狀況[23]。最后在土地、能源、環(huán)境等事項(xiàng)上,隨著我國發(fā)展的深入,地方面臨的約束也是越來越緊張,中央則加強(qiáng)了對這些資源的控制,因此,地方需要打點(diǎn)好與中央的關(guān)系,才可能爭取到這些支撐發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵資源[24]。

與中央控制模型相反,地方獨(dú)立模型強(qiáng)調(diào)地方政府的相對獨(dú)立地位,認(rèn)為地方利益可以影響國家政策制定,中央政策只是地方、部門等各種狹隘性利益的呈現(xiàn)。像中央委員會正是地方影響中央政策的核心渠道,地方整體在委員會內(nèi)是最具有實(shí)力的集團(tuán),正式委員名額一般占到總數(shù)的三到五成左右,候補(bǔ)委員的比重更高[18]。中央、地方的混合身份使得委員個人面臨兩種選擇。其一是站在中央一邊,好處是保持自己在等級體系內(nèi)的位置,甚至獲得晉升。不過委員身份被褫奪是極其罕見的事件,除非發(fā)生極其嚴(yán)重的政治錯誤,晉升也只有10%左右的概率,且還有年齡等規(guī)則限制,所以絕大多數(shù)委員在政治系統(tǒng)內(nèi)已經(jīng)達(dá)到人生的頂峰。其二是站在地方一邊,這樣做的好處主要是在等級外,比如鞏固擴(kuò)張關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò),實(shí)現(xiàn)“為官一任、造福一方”的夙愿,博取社會榮譽(yù),等等。權(quán)衡兩類選擇的好處,大部分中央委員都會以不突破中央底線為約束,以追求地方利益為目標(biāo)②值得注意的是,隨著分權(quán)的推進(jìn),地方上的利益量越來越巨大,所以一些官員甚至是不惜犧牲等級晉升,以專心經(jīng)營于本地利益。典型案例如主政廣東的葉選平,放棄了國務(wù)院副總理的職位[23]。。委員個人同時還承受著中央控制帶來的成本。不過對于地方有利的是,地方力量畢竟在本地類信息上握有優(yōu)勢,中央則只具備有限的能力和資源,不可能搜集到所有相關(guān)信息,所以地方及領(lǐng)導(dǎo)可以選擇性、扭曲性地向中央釋放信息。概括而言,在委員個人完整的權(quán)衡框架內(nèi),如果討好官僚、客戶等有利,且違背中央要求帶來的發(fā)現(xiàn)概率、懲罰成本等有限,那不斷擴(kuò)張本位利益,乃至不惜侵害國家利益,是其理性選擇。

也許是受傳統(tǒng)思維的影響,亦或理論抽象的結(jié)果,人們傾向于認(rèn)為地方政府是中央政府的代理人,但在真實(shí)世界中,中央—地方關(guān)系遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超越了簡單的委托代理關(guān)系,這也帶來地方獨(dú)立于中央的傾向。Shirk認(rèn)為中國改革中的中央—地方關(guān)系是相互負(fù)責(zé),中央委員會內(nèi)的高層領(lǐng)導(dǎo)當(dāng)然有條件影響、甚至控制普通的地方委員,但不管怎樣,高層領(lǐng)導(dǎo)總要經(jīng)過所有委員的選舉,中央政策也總要經(jīng)過所有委員的表決或者背書[25]。因此,對于中央和高層領(lǐng)導(dǎo)而言,不斷回饋地方支持者,拉到更多支持,總是更好的策略。專門就地方而言,地方政府及領(lǐng)導(dǎo)也已經(jīng)成為很多公共事務(wù)的事實(shí)負(fù)責(zé)人,中央政府則在改革中不斷卸責(zé),只是根據(jù)自己簡單的成本收益原則而將很多事務(wù)推向地方,即使地方還因中央在稅收、借債等方面的種種限制而達(dá)不到相稱條件。這導(dǎo)致,地方政府在不少事項(xiàng)上已經(jīng)不能再等待中央指示,更不能依賴于中央,而需要主動地?cái)U(kuò)展自己的活動范圍和深度,甚至是不排除與中央政府發(fā)生沖突。否則,即使在所謂中央的要求下規(guī)規(guī)矩矩,但如果沒有完成社會要求的任務(wù),特別是發(fā)生一些重大事故或者事件,那地方領(lǐng)導(dǎo)反而只能忍受中央和社會更加嚴(yán)苛的指責(zé)和問責(zé)。

下面,檢驗(yàn)上面兩種模型于中央向地方財(cái)政分權(quán)的適用性,操作途徑主要是根據(jù)等級權(quán)力和關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)等原則編碼中央委員、進(jìn)而地區(qū)的政治影響力。如果中央控制模型適用,那地區(qū)政治影響力越大,對應(yīng)著維護(hù)中央權(quán)益的力量更強(qiáng)大,故分權(quán)程度越低;如果地方獨(dú)立模型適用,那地區(qū)政治影響力越大,對應(yīng)著追逐地方權(quán)益的力量更強(qiáng)大,故分權(quán)程度越高。

三、變量與數(shù)據(jù)

因變量財(cái)政分權(quán)同時適用收入分權(quán)(R_ DEC)、支出分權(quán)(E_ DEC)和財(cái)政自主(F_ AUTO)三種指標(biāo),以多角度、穩(wěn)健地體現(xiàn)財(cái)政分權(quán)內(nèi)容[26]。收支分權(quán)由地方預(yù)算內(nèi)收支指示,捕捉中央、地方在資源配置上的對比關(guān)系。財(cái)政自主由地方對中央的財(cái)政依賴反向指示,捕捉地方在資源使用上的自由程度。

自變量地區(qū)政治影響力(P_ INF)由中央委員的政治影響力加總而來。海外中國研究已經(jīng)嘗試對中央委員編碼,不過主要是限于權(quán)力的描述性分析和中央、地方等維度上的簡單對比[27]。本文在他們的基礎(chǔ)上,對編碼結(jié)構(gòu)和考察對象等作以下改進(jìn): (1)棄用簡單的0、1賦分,分別為一般委員、政治局委員、政治局常委賦值1、5、9和1、9、27分,以充分體現(xiàn)不同委員不同等級的政治能量差異,像現(xiàn)有研究常用地方領(lǐng)導(dǎo)政治局委員身份的0、1賦分,這既不能充分體現(xiàn)大多數(shù)省份之間的差異,也不能捕捉到擁有更大政治勢力的政治局常委的影響。(2)納入非正式政治內(nèi)容,分別適用0.6、0.3、0.1和0.7、0.2、0.1的加權(quán)比重,將等級得分分配于現(xiàn)職地、發(fā)源地(前一政治周期內(nèi)的任職地)和籍貫地,以充分體現(xiàn)關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)和高等級委員的影響,像現(xiàn)有研究主要集中于當(dāng)?shù)仡I(lǐng)導(dǎo),這忽視了中國特有的關(guān)系型政治,特別是忽視了非地方領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的中央領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的影響[28]。舉個例子,如果是某政治局常委,則其得分為9分或者27分,再將分值按照比例分配于現(xiàn)職地(中央)、發(fā)源地(中央或者地方省份)和籍貫地(地方省份),所有中央委員的得分均按照此程序分配,最后加總各省份和中央部委等得分。由于引入了發(fā)源地等非正式政治,為規(guī)避編碼沖突,也是吻合政治事實(shí),政治影響力指標(biāo)的計(jì)算對應(yīng)于整個黨代會周期。

其他控制型等變量見表1。其中建筑業(yè)增加值比重代理指示非預(yù)算財(cái)政(N_ BUD)的影響,這是基于非預(yù)算財(cái)政與房地產(chǎn)發(fā)展緊密相關(guān),國有企業(yè)工業(yè)產(chǎn)值比重代理指示非市場化(N_ MAR)如傳統(tǒng)計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)、政企關(guān)系等的影響。具體搜集的數(shù)據(jù)始自2003年,止于2007年,以對應(yīng)于“十六大”黨代會周期的政治影響力數(shù)據(jù)。選擇“十六大”是鑒于當(dāng)時中國政治生活已經(jīng)基本制度化,核心表現(xiàn)如領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人更替可預(yù)期、政治局會議正規(guī)化、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人分工明確化等,而政治制度化意味著基于職務(wù)測度影響力的可靠性。政治影響力數(shù)據(jù)也可以拓展至“十七大”等,但我們還不能得到關(guān)鍵的自2008年起的行政編制數(shù)據(jù),故先將研究局限于“十六大”。影響力的現(xiàn)職地、發(fā)源地等均納入任期權(quán)重,適應(yīng)于黨代會的召開日期,日期精確到半月,其中官方公布簡歷上精確到月的,按月中值計(jì)算,沒有精確到月的,再通過搜索新華網(wǎng)、人民網(wǎng)、或者相關(guān)政府型網(wǎng)站等確認(rèn)。省外如中央部委等的政治影響力都?xì)w集為“非地方”,個別逝世、免職、遞補(bǔ)委員的任職期以官方正式公布的日期為準(zhǔn)。匹配于政治影響力數(shù)據(jù),變量都?xì)w集為五年整體的,價格型變量根據(jù)GDP平減指數(shù)折算到2003年的水平,美元價值根據(jù)當(dāng)年平均匯率折算成人民幣價值。

表1 變量定義

在以上變量中,本文貢獻(xiàn)的變量——政治影響力決定于樣本期前的選舉,故不考慮理論內(nèi)生性問題。至于測量誤差和遺漏變量問題,有待專門研究。其中如小集團(tuán)等可能有影響,不過考慮到有兩百多位中央委員,最終影響應(yīng)該不會上升到統(tǒng)計(jì)規(guī)律。主要從事實(shí)看,關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)在中央委員的選擇中發(fā)揮著主要作用,中央更時不時地調(diào)換地方領(lǐng)導(dǎo),新領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的到任也迅速給地方帶來各種資源,所以逆向因果關(guān)系的干擾應(yīng)該是非常有限。本文重點(diǎn)關(guān)注的行政變量——政府和官員,前者主要決定于地理和歷史因素,后者由中央編制辦嚴(yán)格控制,也不考慮內(nèi)生性問題。存在雙向因果關(guān)系的變量主要是經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展,且其非常可能與一些遺漏變量和測量誤差相關(guān),所以重點(diǎn)控制,在回歸檢驗(yàn)中同時適用二階段最小二乘法(2SLS)。在收入分權(quán)回歸中,通過檢驗(yàn)的工具變量為2002年經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和東部地區(qū),在支出分權(quán)和財(cái)政自主回歸中,有效工具變量為2002年經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和西部地區(qū)。在后面報(bào)告和未報(bào)告的方程中,豪斯曼檢驗(yàn)和異方差穩(wěn)健的DWH檢驗(yàn)均不能拒絕“所有變量均外生”的原假設(shè),所以普通最小二乘法(OLS)已經(jīng)有效。不過由于2SLS法在估計(jì)中首先剔除了經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展及相關(guān)變量的可能內(nèi)生部分,單獨(dú)的系數(shù)估計(jì)在本文的效果一般都更好。

表2 描述性統(tǒng)計(jì)

本文變量計(jì)算包含了除香港、澳門、臺灣外的31個省級單位,但后面統(tǒng)計(jì)、計(jì)量剔除了西藏,它在很多變量上明顯異于其他省份,在計(jì)量檢驗(yàn)中也確實(shí)成為特殊的有影響力個案,而其他省份在檢驗(yàn)中均達(dá)不到2倍杠桿值均值的界限。主要變量描述性分析見表2。

四、檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果

檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果見表3,分析軟件為stata11??紤]到政治、行政的緊密聯(lián)系,特別是政治因素對行政因素的框架性限定作用,本文專門加入政治影響力對行政力量的調(diào)節(jié)作用①本文適用“調(diào)節(jié)作用”的稱謂是為了強(qiáng)調(diào)政治高于行政的地位,如政治領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行政的事實(shí),如果兩者地位同等重要,調(diào)節(jié)作用就是一般的交互作用。,且成功分離出多種顯著作用,而如果不考慮,政治影響力的估計(jì)系數(shù)不顯著。其中為緩解調(diào)節(jié)作用項(xiàng)帶來的共線性問題,在回歸分析中首先將調(diào)節(jié)作用項(xiàng)的相關(guān)變量中心化。政治影響力來源于賦值法,難免有武斷之嫌,比如四種賦值即使相關(guān)性極高,但在局部區(qū)域,不少樣本的排序都存在變化,所以出于穩(wěn)健分析的考慮,對四種測度均作檢驗(yàn)。鑒于核心的定性結(jié)論一致,其他三種測度限于篇幅就不報(bào)告,感興趣的讀者可以向作者索取未報(bào)告的檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果。

表3 回歸分析結(jié)果

檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果顯示,政治影響力對各財(cái)政分權(quán)指標(biāo)均發(fā)揮直接的負(fù)向作用,這符合中央控制模型的預(yù)測。從收入分權(quán)看,中央委員成為中央在地方征集收入的總代理。地方政府在中央委員的層級控制下,也是各級官員為了向中央及地方首長“表功”,將更多資源貢獻(xiàn)于中央。從支出分權(quán)看,中央成功地通過中央委員控制了地方支出,比如在樣本期間,中央曾經(jīng)三令五申加強(qiáng)宏觀調(diào)控,抑制經(jīng)濟(jì)過熱,其中個別地方及官員則因不執(zhí)行、乃至主動抵抗中央政策,而遭到懲罰。從財(cái)政自主看,中央委員從收入和補(bǔ)助兩方面降低了地方分權(quán)程度。這是一種悖論:中央委員先從地方征集到更多收入,再向地方返還更多補(bǔ)助[28]。過程損耗資源,但通過這個似乎多余的反復(fù)過程,中央可以控制地方,實(shí)現(xiàn)宏觀調(diào)控和收入分配等目標(biāo),而委員個人可以充分展示自己對于中央和地方的權(quán)力權(quán)威與重要價值。

除了直接的負(fù)向作用,政治影響力還對行政力量發(fā)揮正向的調(diào)節(jié)作用,這吻合地方獨(dú)立模型的預(yù)測,也反映了我國獨(dú)有的政治——行政關(guān)系。就政治力量而言,中央委員雖然因中央而管理地方,但同樣離不開地方行政部門,他們的功績和晉升需要地方部門的支撐,所以有激勵動用權(quán)力和關(guān)系為地方謀取利益的跡象。像省長和部長一般都是中央委員,作為行政部門的首長,為本地、本系統(tǒng)爭取更多資源是當(dāng)然選擇。這些都相應(yīng)地為地方帶來更多的財(cái)政等資源。最后從中央政府的角度而言,管理一個超大型國家需要從上到下的機(jī)構(gòu)支持,所以中央在一定范圍內(nèi)也是樂見地方機(jī)構(gòu)的穩(wěn)定和發(fā)展,甚至是主動為他們提供資金等支持。

中國中央—地方關(guān)系在政治經(jīng)濟(jì)維度上同時存在著中央控制和地方獨(dú)立的證據(jù)。前者體現(xiàn)于中央委員的直接作用,這表明中央委員會首先作為中央控制地方的制度形式而存在,中央委員的權(quán)力權(quán)威首先來源于中央的背書。后者體現(xiàn)于中央委員通過行政部門產(chǎn)生的間接作用,這表明政府整體運(yùn)行有其固有的客觀規(guī)律,并非任何一方“唱獨(dú)角戲”可以完成,即使是位于較高層級的中央及委員個人,他們的權(quán)力鞏固也有賴于下面地方的配合與支持。由于“中央”的身份,中央委員個人也許不便于直接“出面”為地方爭奪資源,但可以間接地提供支持,而地方部門只要主動積極地攻關(guān)相關(guān)單位、相關(guān)人士,特別是充分利用高級領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的等級權(quán)力和關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò),帶來更多資源的理想結(jié)果自然實(shí)現(xiàn)。

本文其他變量的作用包括: (1)行政力量一般發(fā)揮正向作用,吻合行政部門擴(kuò)張說。特殊的是行政政府在財(cái)政自主中的負(fù)向作用,這主要是因?yàn)槲覈蠖鄶?shù)省份都屬于地廣人稀的落后省份,它們的縣級政府?dāng)?shù)恰恰都很高,所以資源規(guī)律掩蓋、乃至顛覆了政治和行政規(guī)律,像很多基層政府的運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)就主要依賴于中央補(bǔ)助。另外行政政府與行政官員也存在部分重復(fù)測度,影響到定量檢驗(yàn)。(2)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和城鎮(zhèn)化水平的正向作用,符合傳統(tǒng)分權(quán)理論。(3)外向型經(jīng)濟(jì)的正向作用,說明了對外開放對于地方財(cái)力和公共服務(wù)等的正面效應(yīng)。(4)非預(yù)算財(cái)政的正向作用,它與財(cái)政收入受到很多共同因素的影響,也有利于擴(kuò)張支出。(5)非市場化對收入分權(quán)發(fā)揮負(fù)面作用,說明了國有企業(yè)不利于收入征集,但對支出分權(quán)具有正向作用,對財(cái)政自主有負(fù)向作用,說明地方憑借國有企業(yè)的關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)可以爭取到更多補(bǔ)助,進(jìn)而擴(kuò)張支出。(6)人口規(guī)模對財(cái)政自主發(fā)揮正向作用,符合傳統(tǒng)分權(quán)理論,但對支出分權(quán)發(fā)揮負(fù)向作用,這與支出的實(shí)質(zhì)內(nèi)容和指標(biāo)的人均性質(zhì)有關(guān),我國很多公共支出都屬于基本型,而且像行政管理等活動具有明顯的非競爭性特性。(7)少數(shù)民族的負(fù)向作用,符合相關(guān)地區(qū)因地理?xiàng)l件惡劣和經(jīng)濟(jì)落后而導(dǎo)致財(cái)力匱乏,進(jìn)而需要補(bǔ)助。(8)西部地區(qū)對收入分權(quán)的正向作用,可能是控制了少數(shù)民族等變量的結(jié)果。

五、結(jié)論與政策含義

本文應(yīng)用多種財(cái)政分權(quán)指標(biāo),引入來源于中央委員的地區(qū)政治影響力指標(biāo),考察了我國還很少研究的財(cái)政分權(quán)決定因素,并證實(shí)政治影響力的直接負(fù)向作用和間接型的對行政力量的正向調(diào)節(jié)作用。直接負(fù)向作用印證了中央—地方關(guān)系的中央控制模型,中央借助于中央委員的權(quán)力影響,將財(cái)政資源朝中央集中。間接的正向調(diào)節(jié)作用印證了地方獨(dú)立模型,地方政府存在獨(dú)立擴(kuò)張傾向,且在關(guān)聯(lián)中央委員政治權(quán)力的庇護(hù)和激勵下,能夠?yàn)榈胤骄鹑〉礁嘭?cái)政資源。本文的研究結(jié)論表明,推進(jìn)財(cái)政等分權(quán)改革,優(yōu)化中央—地方關(guān)系,不能忽視深層次的政治、行政體制改革。第一,權(quán)力是政府運(yùn)行的必然規(guī)律,優(yōu)化中央—地方關(guān)系的根本途徑是平衡各主體間的權(quán)力、責(zé)任、利益等配置。第二,改進(jìn)政治、行政部門分工,政治部門的職能可以定位于評估、監(jiān)督行政部門,并向選民和中央政府等委托者負(fù)責(zé)。第三,引入抗衡性力量,培育制衡性制度,防范政府間、政府—社會間可能壟斷者的專斷和合謀,等等。

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P2P platform finishes fund borrowing and loaning after fund raisers apply for loans,the plat-book=126,ebook=131form audits and publishes loan information and investors bid.The borrowing and loaning rate of funds are the core factors that affect the prudent operation of P2P platform.Because the fund loaning rate of Net Credit Platform is sensitive to liquidity premium,credit spread,debt repaying capacity,investors 'emotion and so on,this paper builds econometric test model and conducts empirical test based on Prosper platform data.The results find: generally speaking,the effects of liquidity,credit standing,debt repaying capacity and investors' emotion on the borrowing and loaning rate of platform funds are basically the same with theoretical analysis.However,the sensitivity of the borrowing and loaning rate of platform funds to all kinds of influencing factors is different,among which those that can produce more obvious effects are : term variable,credit rating among credit variables,the credit enquiry frequency in the past six months,debt-to-income ratio in debt repaying capacity and loan amount,friends 'investment amount and whether they have joined the group among investors' emotion variables.Based on this,this paper puts forward policy suggestions on promoting the healthy development of Chinese P2P platform. This paper theoretically explores and empirically tests the mechanism between the expansive and excess capacity of SOEs.The nature of SOEs makes them have the internal stimulation that leads to excessive capacity expansion.After the economic crisis,the economic stimulating policy dominated by the government stimulated the expansive capacity of SOEs internally and externally and aggravated excess capacity problem.This paper empirically tests the relationship among SOEs,credit distortion and capacity utilization rate by using the panel data model of 36 Chinese 36 SOEs in industrial sector from 2000 to 2011.The empirical results indicate that: the state-owned stock controlling proportion of the industry and the credit scale of SOEs have significant negative effect on the capacity utilization rate of the industry and the negative effects will be strengthened after 2008. From 2012 to 2013,the two successive governments made the relevant policies for promoting the development of photovoltaic industry in order to deal with the inside and outside difficult situation of Chinese photovoltaic industry.However,there is controversy about the rationality of these policies.Do these policies work? This paper chooses the listed companies of A-share photovoltaic industry as sample and uses event study methods to examine the market performance of the relevant companies' stocks before and after these policies are published and test the effects of the policies from this perspective.The research finds that the market has different reactions to different policies.This paper further analyzes the causes for different reactions and role mechanism.a(chǎn)nd further proves by using the corresponding industrial data. Based on the economic decentralization and regional disparity of environmental regulation,this paper uses the panel data of 279 Chinese cities from 2003 to 2013 and examines the industrial structure effects of environmental regulation and environmental regulation competition.The research finds that: (1) the greater strength of Chinese environmental regulation is conductive to the industrial structure upgrading without considering environmental regulation competition.(2) After the environmental regulation competition is pictured by using spatial Durbin model,environmental regulation plays smaller promoting roles in local industrial structure upgrading.The environmental regulation competition that focuses on simulation strategy will produce positive spillover effect on the industrial structure level of nearby regions.The accumulative spillover effects on the nearby regions are nearly 4 times as much as that on local area.Seen from regions,the promoting roles played by environmental regulation in local industrial structure upgrading are more outstanding in the middle and west region.The negative spatial spillover effect of east region shows that the environmental regulation competition of east coastal cities is not conductive to the general industrial transformation upgrading of the region.The local government is more inclined to adopt differentiation strategy rather than the simulation strategy of the middle and west region. Through the empirical analysis of Chinese A share listed companies from 2010 to 2013,we find that the political connection of enterprises produces two kinds of effects: creative productive inhibitory effect and relational resource bias effect.Creative productive inhibitory effect hinders the rise of corporate performance; but relational resource bias effect improves corporate performance by helping enterprises to obtain key resources.Generally speaking,the positive effect of relational resource bias produced by the political connection of Chinese enterprises on performance should be greater than the negative effect of creative production inhibitory effect on performance.But decentralization,continually reducing governmental intervention,raising governmental efficiency and cutting relational resource bias effect lead to that political connection is not conductive to the rise of the long-term corporate performance. Employees' training input is not the more the better.Based on the generalized propensity score matching method,this paper evaluates the roles played by employees' training input in corporate productivity and finds that: (1) a reverse N-shaped relationship exists between training input and corporate productivity,that is,with the rise of training input,corporate productivity has the trend of“rise-fall-rise”.Thus,relativelybook=128,ebook=133small or large amount of training input is invalid.The corporate efficiency can't be raised and there is no optimal employees' training input.(2) These conclusions are robust under two kinds of efficiency indicators (i.e.labor productivity and total factor productivity) and under three subsamples (i.e.classified by region,industry and ownership).(3) But the treatment effects and the optimal scale of employees' training input are different in different subsamples. On the basis of theoretical analysis,this paper,selects 2389 A-share listed companies in Chinese Shanghai and Shenzhen stock market in 2013 as sample and conducts the empirical research on the relationship between internal governance and debt levels.The results indicate that the effects of the scale of the board of directors,the scale of independent directors and the percentage of the independent director on the debt level of listed companies are uncertain.But the coefficient sign difference can reflect the internal check and balance mechanism inside the board of directors.The bigger scale of the board of directors and the internal structure that board chairman acts as the general manager can cause higher corporate debt level in the normal operation course of the company.The more the general meeting of stockholders,the higher the debt level of listed companies; fewer meetings of board of supervisors are conductive to reducing the debt level of listed companies and can better protect the rights and interests of listed companies over debtors. This paper takes three fiscal decentralization indicators including income,expenditure and independence as dependent variables,introduces the indicator on local political influence from central committee members and examines the determinants on fiscal decentralization that are rarely studied in China.Political influence plays a directive negative role in fiscal decentralization,which indicates that the central government makes fiscal resources centralized on the central government by the aid of the influence of political committee members' political power.Political influence plays an in directive positive adjusting role in administrative government and administrative bureaucracy,which shows that under the stimulation and guarantee of related political powers,administrative power can grab more fiscal resources.These evidences prove that promoting fiscal decentralization reform and optimizing the relationship between the central government and the local government can't ignore the in-depth political and administrative system reform.

Key words:Economics Paradigm; Scarcity Dualism; Institution Theory of Value; Dimension Reduction Strategy; Vanishing Assumption; Intellectual Property Capital Account; Exchange Rate; Asset Price; Monetary Policy Financial System; Financial Stability; Financial Stress Index; Systematic Risk Reserve Requirement Ratio; Loan Growth Rate; Deposit Growth Rate; Wealth Management Product Net Credit Platform; Loaning Rate of Funds; Risk Premium; Investors' Behavior Excess Capacity; Capacity Utilization Rate; State-owned Enterprise; Credit Distortion; Industrial Panel Data Photovoltaic Industry; Policy Support; Event Study Environmental Regulation Competition; Industrial Structure Upgrading; Spillover; Spatial Durbin Model Decentralization; Political Connection; Corporate Performance; Political Intervention; Governmental Efficiency Employees' training Input; Corporate Productivity; Generalized Propensity Score Matching; Treatment Effect Internal Governance; Debt Level; Empirical Analysis Fiscal Decentralization; Fiscal Independence; Political Influence; Central-Local Relationship; Central Committee Member; Administrative Power

作者簡介:陳志廣(1978-),湖南省醴陵市人,南京大學(xué)政府管理學(xué)院副教授,經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)博士,研究方向:政府規(guī)制與反壟斷、公共財(cái)政與預(yù)算管理、公共部門治理與非營利組織管理等。

基金項(xiàng)目:國家社科基金重點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目“政治權(quán)力影響下中央對地方財(cái)政轉(zhuǎn)移支付配置研究”(15AZZ011) ;教育部人文社會科學(xué)研究規(guī)劃基金項(xiàng)目“基于治理視角的我國地方政府財(cái)政支出效率研究”(13YJA630009) ;國家留學(xué)基金委訪問學(xué)者項(xiàng)目。

收稿日期:2015-08-09

文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼:A

文章編號:1002-2848-2016(01)-0116-08

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