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玻璃體液在法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)實(shí)踐中的價(jià)值評(píng)析

2017-03-03 03:29沈敏向平
中國(guó)司法鑒定 2017年1期
關(guān)鍵詞:檢材可卡因體液

沈敏,向平

(司法部司法鑒定科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái),上海200063)

鑒定綜述R e v i e w

玻璃體液在法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)實(shí)踐中的價(jià)值評(píng)析

沈敏,向平

(司法部司法鑒定科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái),上海200063)

玻璃體液因具有相對(duì)隔絕的解剖特征、受尸體腐敗和內(nèi)外部污染影響小、較少發(fā)生死后再分布、化學(xué)物質(zhì)濃度相對(duì)穩(wěn)定的優(yōu)勢(shì)特點(diǎn)而成為法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)關(guān)注和研究的對(duì)象。從提升毒物鑒定結(jié)果的可靠性以及深化玻璃體液應(yīng)用研究的角度,綜述了玻璃體液毒物定性定量分析的文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,探討了玻璃體液在死后毒物學(xué)實(shí)踐中的潛在應(yīng)用價(jià)值以及存在的問題,提出當(dāng)缺失血液檢材或血液的可靠性受死后因素影響時(shí),玻璃體液可作為血液的替代檢材或作為血液分析的質(zhì)量控制措施。

玻璃體液;死后毒物學(xué);血-視網(wǎng)膜屏障;法醫(yī)毒物學(xué);死后再分布

生物檢材的選擇與毒物鑒定結(jié)果信息的可靠性、科學(xué)性和充分性密切關(guān)聯(lián)。在死后毒物學(xué)領(lǐng)域,由于尸體高度腐敗、死后生成、死后再分布、體內(nèi)局部污染等因素存在,選取可反映死者生前毒物真實(shí)水平的生物檢材或血液的替代檢材顯得尤為重要。如研究表明相當(dāng)部分毒物存在死后再分布,雖然死后再分布很少能改變大劑量毒物中毒死亡的定性,但卻可能影響處于中毒量或接近致死量的案件的死因認(rèn)定。目前人們已普遍認(rèn)同死后再分布可導(dǎo)致心血和外周血毒物濃度的差異,應(yīng)用外周血可顯著降低死后再分布的影響,以保障分析結(jié)果的可靠性,然而外周血“金標(biāo)準(zhǔn)”仍然會(huì)受到尸體高度腐敗的影響。于是,具有相對(duì)隔絕的解剖特點(diǎn)、受尸體腐敗和外界污染影響小、較少發(fā)生死后再分布、化學(xué)物質(zhì)濃度相對(duì)穩(wěn)定的玻璃體液,成為法醫(yī)病理學(xué)和法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)領(lǐng)域關(guān)注和研究的對(duì)象。

法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)領(lǐng)域有關(guān)玻璃體液與血液等體液的比較研究已有近50年的歷史,但多見于散在的、個(gè)別毒物的文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,尚未在鑒定實(shí)踐中受到應(yīng)有的關(guān)注和應(yīng)用。隨著人們對(duì)體內(nèi)毒物轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)消除和死后再分布的認(rèn)知提升、實(shí)際案例定性定量數(shù)據(jù)的積累、分析技術(shù)的快速發(fā)展以及結(jié)果解釋的證據(jù)要求,將玻璃體液作為血液的替代檢材或作為血液分析的質(zhì)量控制措施的理念意識(shí)、迫切性和可行性顯著增強(qiáng)。本文從提升毒物鑒定結(jié)果的可靠性以及深化玻璃體液應(yīng)用研究的角度,綜述了玻璃體液中毒物的轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)消除和死后變化,以及玻璃體液毒物定性定量分析研究的文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,并收集了100多種毒藥物和300多個(gè)案例的濃度數(shù)據(jù),探討玻璃體液在法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)實(shí)踐中的應(yīng)用價(jià)值和存在問題,以供同行參考、研究。

1 玻璃體液概述

1.1 玻璃體液的構(gòu)成

玻璃體是一種獨(dú)特透明的細(xì)胞外基質(zhì),呈粘液凝膠狀,容積約4.6mL。玻璃體的結(jié)構(gòu)大分子有透明質(zhì)酸、蛋白多糖、膠原及非膠原蛋白質(zhì),這些大分子結(jié)構(gòu)具有互補(bǔ)功能,其交互作用構(gòu)成了玻璃體的凝膠特性。另外,玻璃體還含有非結(jié)構(gòu)蛋白質(zhì),大多數(shù)血清成分均可存在于玻璃體液中,但濃度要比血清低得多[1]。玻璃體有少量細(xì)胞即玻璃體細(xì)胞,主要限于玻璃體皮質(zhì)和玻璃體基底部。玻璃體液的組成約99%為水,1%為少量蛋白質(zhì)(包括可溶性蛋白)、無機(jī)鹽、糖、乳酸、尿素、維生素C、氨基酸和脂質(zhì)等。玻璃體隨著年齡的增長(zhǎng)出現(xiàn)進(jìn)展性液化,液化過程從4歲開始,成人時(shí)約20%的玻璃體液化,80歲時(shí)增加至50%。

1.2 血-視網(wǎng)膜屏障

血-視網(wǎng)膜屏障(blood retinal barrier,BRB)類似血-腦屏障,是一種選擇性的屏障,其保證了視網(wǎng)膜功能所需的輸入和限制可能的病原體(如酶、過敏毒素)入侵[2]。BRB實(shí)際上包括兩個(gè)屏障:(1)外屏障。即BRB的上皮部分,由視網(wǎng)膜色素上皮細(xì)胞(RPE)及其連接組成。外屏障使視網(wǎng)膜組織液與脈絡(luò)膜組織液分離,后者與血漿成分極為相似。RPE除作為視網(wǎng)膜的選擇性通透屏障外,還能主動(dòng)運(yùn)輸各種離子、分子和液體。(2)內(nèi)屏障。即BRB的內(nèi)皮部分,為視網(wǎng)膜毛細(xì)血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞及其連接。血-視網(wǎng)膜屏障的通透性分為內(nèi)向通透性和外向通透性,前者是指物質(zhì)經(jīng)過BRB透入到神經(jīng)視網(wǎng)膜,甚至到達(dá)玻璃體;后者是指物質(zhì)從玻璃體或神經(jīng)視網(wǎng)膜經(jīng)BRB到達(dá)視網(wǎng)膜毛細(xì)血管腔或脈絡(luò)膜組織[3]。在正常情況下,由于視網(wǎng)膜毛細(xì)血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的單向主動(dòng)運(yùn)輸作用和RPE泵的作用,內(nèi)向通透性明顯低于外向通透性,這是維持神經(jīng)視網(wǎng)膜內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)定的必要條件。BRB可能會(huì)受到各種因素和病癥的影響,最常見的是糖尿病視網(wǎng)膜病變和與年齡相關(guān)的黃斑變性。

1.3 外源性物質(zhì)的跨膜轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)

法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)領(lǐng)域所涉外源性物質(zhì)主要來源于體循環(huán),從視網(wǎng)膜穿透血-視網(wǎng)膜屏障進(jìn)入玻璃體液。而這些物質(zhì)從玻璃體液消除一般認(rèn)為有兩種途徑:反方向通過BRB的后腔消除途徑;通過前腔環(huán)形空間擴(kuò)散至房水,然后由房水更新及脈絡(luò)膜血流而消除。

外源性物質(zhì)滲透到視網(wǎng)膜取決于多種因素[4],包括血漿濃度、物質(zhì)的理化性質(zhì)、藥理作用、分布容積、血漿蛋白結(jié)合和BRB相對(duì)通透性。物質(zhì)可被動(dòng)擴(kuò)散或主動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)跨越屏障:一般情況下,較高分子量和/或較強(qiáng)親水性更可能表現(xiàn)為主動(dòng)的跨膜轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)[5]。由于僅非結(jié)合型物質(zhì)可以跨越生物膜,故血漿蛋白結(jié)合率也是決定擴(kuò)散程度的另一重要因素。在法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)研究領(lǐng)域,Holmgren等[6]發(fā)現(xiàn)血液/玻璃體液濃度比值與血漿蛋白結(jié)合率之間存在顯著的相關(guān)性。

許多蛋白承載著外源性物質(zhì)的跨膜轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn),BRB所涉的主要轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)蛋白有,多藥耐藥(MDR)P-糖蛋白(P-gp轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)蛋白,包括或MDR1)、多藥耐藥相關(guān)蛋白(MRP)和乳腺癌耐藥蛋白(BCRP)。與被動(dòng)擴(kuò)散相比,主動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)在物質(zhì)濃度超過載體的轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)能力時(shí)有飽和現(xiàn)象,并與同底物的其他物質(zhì)存在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性抑制。在法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)領(lǐng)域,這種毒物的相互作用可能對(duì)玻璃體液濃度的解釋產(chǎn)生重要影響,尤其是影響玻璃體液/血液濃度比。不同的轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)機(jī)制及其影響因素對(duì)于理解以及解釋外源性物質(zhì)在血液和玻璃體液中濃度分布非常關(guān)鍵。臨床上有許多眼科治療藥物的轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)機(jī)制研究和藥代動(dòng)力學(xué)研究,但關(guān)于毒物的轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)知識(shí)以及相關(guān)研究文獻(xiàn)記載極為罕見。

1.4 玻璃體液的死后變化

玻璃體由于受到眼眶的保護(hù)及相對(duì)隔絕的解剖特點(diǎn),尸體腐敗和外界污染等因素對(duì)其影響小。此外,其較少發(fā)生死后再分布,死后玻璃體液中外源性物質(zhì)的化學(xué)變化較血液緩慢,濃度相對(duì)穩(wěn)定。

上述優(yōu)勢(shì)特征使其成為法醫(yī)病理學(xué)死亡時(shí)間推斷研究的重要對(duì)象,在中毒死亡鑒定中也具有潛在的應(yīng)用價(jià)值。

死后玻璃體液依據(jù)死亡時(shí)間和環(huán)境條件趨于液化。玻璃體液離體后其儲(chǔ)存穩(wěn)定性是法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)關(guān)注的重要問題。Harper等[7]通過51對(duì)玻璃體液和外周血樣本的分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)玻璃體液不易受細(xì)菌污染,但作者仍建議在無菌條件下取樣(注射器和容器),以強(qiáng)化樣品儲(chǔ)存穩(wěn)定性的優(yōu)勢(shì)。兩眼球的毒物濃度比較研究表明,眠爾通、甲基苯丙胺、MDMA、苯妥英鈉、巴比妥類和可卡因均沒有顯著差異,然而作者仍推薦兩者獨(dú)立采集、分別盛裝[8-9]。

也有采用穩(wěn)定劑如氟化鈉(NaF)或氟化鉀(KF)阻斷酶的活性,防止某些外源性物質(zhì)的變化或降解。Holmgren等[6]評(píng)估了KF對(duì)血液和玻璃體液于-20℃保存1年條件下穩(wěn)定性的影響,46個(gè)藥物中僅佐匹克?。╪=13)在沒有KF時(shí)表現(xiàn)出濃度顯著降低。Melo等[10]研究了儲(chǔ)存溫度對(duì)玻璃體液中苯二氮卓類藥物(勞拉西泮、艾司唑侖、利眠寧、凱他唑侖)濃度的影響,結(jié)果顯示在低溫(-20℃、-80℃)存儲(chǔ)時(shí),藥物濃度沒有明顯變化;4℃和25℃時(shí),某些藥物可穩(wěn)定數(shù)周,而凱他唑侖在12周時(shí)完全降解。Rees[11]考察了玻璃體液中可卡因存儲(chǔ)84 d的穩(wěn)定性,-18℃時(shí)無論有無穩(wěn)定劑(NaF)均表現(xiàn)穩(wěn)定;4℃條件下儲(chǔ)存14d,其濃度在有和無穩(wěn)定劑情況下分別下降25%和50%。

在上述實(shí)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)的基礎(chǔ)上,法醫(yī)學(xué)工作者應(yīng)形成共識(shí):獨(dú)立采集兩個(gè)眼球的玻璃體液并分別盛裝保存;其中一個(gè)樣本用于毒物學(xué)分析,應(yīng)添加穩(wěn)定劑(1.5%NaF或KF)以防止外源性物質(zhì)的變化和降解,另一樣本不加穩(wěn)定劑,用于生物化學(xué)分析;樣品應(yīng)存放于-20℃條件下保存。

2 玻璃體液毒物分析結(jié)果評(píng)析

1969年,F(xiàn)elby等[12]首先報(bào)道了關(guān)于死后玻璃體液分析的研究報(bào)告。作者在死者的玻璃體液中檢出了巴比妥類藥物,且濃度與其血清水平接近,表明巴比妥類藥物可通過被動(dòng)擴(kuò)散進(jìn)入玻璃體液。作者認(rèn)為血清/玻璃體液濃度比>1表示死亡發(fā)生于攝藥后不久,先于藥物平衡相到達(dá)。在技術(shù)上分析玻璃體液比血液更為簡(jiǎn)便,尤其對(duì)于腐敗尸體更凸顯其優(yōu)勢(shì)。此后,玻璃體液毒物分析的研究和應(yīng)用逐漸增多,表1總結(jié)了300多個(gè)血液和玻璃體液毒物濃度的研究報(bào)道[13-152],以供比較分析和結(jié)果解釋。

2.1 定性分析結(jié)果評(píng)析

定性篩選分析可發(fā)現(xiàn)或排除外源性物質(zhì)的存在,是法醫(yī)毒物鑒定最基本、最關(guān)鍵的環(huán)節(jié)。血液、尿液是定性篩選分析的常用生物檢材,其中尿液因有更為寬(含代謝物)、長(zhǎng)(毒物留存時(shí)間)的檢測(cè)窗口而具有一定的優(yōu)勢(shì)。關(guān)于較為全面的玻璃體液用于篩選分析的適用性研究?jī)H見2篇文獻(xiàn)。2010年P(guān)elander[153]運(yùn)用液相色譜/飛行時(shí)間質(zhì)譜(LC-TOFMS)對(duì)玻璃體液作為篩選分析檢材的可替代性進(jìn)行了評(píng)價(jià)。其實(shí)驗(yàn)室比較了50例案件的尿液和玻璃體液經(jīng)LC-TOFMS篩選分析的陽(yáng)性發(fā)現(xiàn),結(jié)果兩者的陽(yáng)性檢出總數(shù)分別為376和245,確定毒性物質(zhì)總數(shù)為97,其中39為代謝產(chǎn)物。尿液分析確定55個(gè)母體化合物和39個(gè)代謝物,而玻璃體液的檢出數(shù)較尿液低,分別為45和24。研究結(jié)果恰如預(yù)期,因尿液中目標(biāo)物濃度較高,代謝物主要存在于尿液,故尿液有更高的陽(yáng)性檢出率。同時(shí)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)玻璃體液表現(xiàn)出低背景噪音,有效降低了儀器污染和基質(zhì)效應(yīng)?;谘芯拷Y(jié)果,作者認(rèn)為玻璃體液是可行的、易于處理的定性篩選分析的替代性檢材,盡管其目標(biāo)物和代謝物濃度低于尿液,但方法cutoff值的平均數(shù)和中位數(shù)分別達(dá)到0.072 μg/mL和0.032 μg/mL,可以滿足死后毒物學(xué)分析的需要。Metushi[154]2016年報(bào)道了血液和玻璃體液的氣相色譜/質(zhì)譜(GC-MS)篩選分析的比較研究結(jié)果。其實(shí)驗(yàn)室篩選分析了51個(gè)死者的血液和玻璃體液,陽(yáng)性發(fā)現(xiàn)數(shù)分別為209和169,確定目標(biāo)物的總數(shù)分別為71和60。研究表明玻璃體液中難以識(shí)別(存在)的目標(biāo)物有7-氨基氯硝西泮、苯甲托品、環(huán)苯扎林、嗎啡、去甲文拉法辛、苯妥英、異丙嗪、唑吡坦和佐匹克隆等,其可能解釋是這些目標(biāo)物難以跨越血-視網(wǎng)膜屏障。Metushi也建議玻璃體液可作為死后毒物篩選分析的適宜檢材。盡管上述二項(xiàng)研究所用技術(shù)平臺(tái)不同,對(duì)目標(biāo)物的適用范圍和靈敏度有所不同,但研究結(jié)果大體是一致的。即以尿液陽(yáng)性檢出數(shù)為基準(zhǔn)時(shí),玻璃體液的檢出率為65%;以血液陽(yáng)性檢出數(shù)為基準(zhǔn)時(shí),玻璃體液的檢出率為80%,而據(jù)表1統(tǒng)計(jì),玻璃體液則有更高的陽(yáng)性檢出比例。當(dāng)然,需要更大規(guī)模的、統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的研究結(jié)果來支撐玻璃體液檢材的適用性評(píng)價(jià)。

不同類別的外源性物質(zhì)在玻璃體液中存在情況不同。(1)阿片類。通過示蹤單乙酰嗎啡(6-MAM)判斷近期是否攝入海洛因一直是研究的關(guān)注焦點(diǎn)。pragst等[155]報(bào)道在29例涉阿片死亡案中,2例玻璃體液檢出6-MAM而尿液呈陰性,盡管一般認(rèn)為尿液中6-MAM濃度較高。Wyman等[156]研究表明對(duì)于海洛因相關(guān)的死亡,若僅用血液分析,6-MAM的未檢出率分別為36%(n=25),59%(n=70),50%(n =12)和25%(n=20)。其提出兩個(gè)假設(shè)解釋為什么玻璃體液的6-MAM檢出率高于血液:6-MAM因親脂性(logP值=1.56)易透過血-視網(wǎng)膜屏障;玻璃體液中無酯酶存在,從而限制了6-MAM的降解。然而假設(shè)需要謹(jǐn)慎,因?yàn)樵S多生物物種的玻璃體液中存在活性酯酶,可使海洛因水解成6-MAM和嗎啡。另有假說認(rèn)為,玻璃體液酯酶的性質(zhì)不同于血液,如腦突觸乙酰膽堿酯酶無法水解海洛因。血液中6-MAM陰性時(shí),有時(shí)也用嗎啡/可待因比來判斷所檢嗎啡系可待因代謝(嗎啡/可待因<1)還是攝入海洛因(嗎啡/可待因>1)。Rees等[157]發(fā)現(xiàn),玻璃體液中嗎啡/可待因比對(duì)揭示海洛因攝入與否也同樣有效。(2)苯二氮卓類。據(jù)Robertson報(bào)道[158],其實(shí)驗(yàn)室涉及3-硝基苯二氮卓類(硝西泮、氟硝西泮、氯硝西泮)的死后毒物學(xué)分析,僅在其中30%的血液中檢出母體藥物,15%的血液中檢出7-氨基代謝物,而玻璃體液母體藥物的檢出率為10%,7-氨基代謝物均未檢出。其檢出率差異可能由于玻璃體液中目標(biāo)物水平一般僅為血液的1/3。Scott[159]分析了17例苯二氮卓類藥物(地西泮、去甲西泮、替馬西泮)死亡案,其中7例血液中檢出而玻璃體液中均為檢出。實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明,苯二氮卓類表現(xiàn)為高度蛋白結(jié)合,其中性或弱酸性的性質(zhì)則進(jìn)一步阻止其進(jìn)入玻璃體液。(3)其他物質(zhì)。在無血液的情況下,玻璃體液對(duì)于揭示可卡因的濫用也具有價(jià)值,有報(bào)道[160]認(rèn)為玻璃體液的檢測(cè)窗口較血液更寬。Jenkins[161]的研究表明涉苯環(huán)己哌啶(PCP)死者其玻璃體液均呈陽(yáng)性。這些研究揭示了玻璃體液在檢測(cè)外源性物質(zhì)方面的適宜性,某些目標(biāo)物(6-MAM、可卡因和PCP)的檢測(cè)窗較血液更寬,而苯二氮卓類物質(zhì)則有所限制。對(duì)于在體內(nèi)低濃度存在的目標(biāo)物如大麻酚類和四氫大麻酸,則不宜采用玻璃體液分析,有報(bào)道在30例陽(yáng)性血液的死者中,僅1例玻璃體液呈陽(yáng)性。要指出的是目前的研究大部分套用血液分析方法,開發(fā)和驗(yàn)證玻璃體液的專用技術(shù)可能會(huì)降低檢測(cè)閾值和提高檢出率。

2.2 定量分析結(jié)果評(píng)析

2.2.1 阿片類

Scott[162]報(bào)道了20例海洛因依賴者死亡案例的分析結(jié)果:玻璃體液的嗎啡濃度較血液低,但兩者具有顯著的相關(guān)性(R2=0.697);玻璃體液的6-MAM濃度高于血液和其他組織,但與血液沒有相關(guān)性,作者據(jù)此認(rèn)為玻璃體液可作為嗎啡分析的替代檢材。Rees[157]證實(shí)了上述結(jié)果,但認(rèn)為玻璃體液和血液?jiǎn)岱葷舛鹊南嚓P(guān)性取決于攝入至死亡的時(shí)間間隔,也可受攝入方式的影響,故血液?jiǎn)岱葷舛炔荒軓牟Aw液水平外推。作者同樣獲得玻璃體液可待因濃度高于血液,兩者呈相關(guān)性(R2=0.672)的實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果。羥考酮顯示玻璃體液和血藥濃度的正相關(guān)關(guān)系,但從玻璃體液外推血液水平結(jié)果過于分散[163]。

2.2.2 可卡因

與其他物質(zhì)不同,死后血液中可卡因濃度幾乎很少與死亡時(shí)間關(guān)聯(lián),而很大程度上取決于體內(nèi)或體外降解。因玻璃體液中外源性物質(zhì)相對(duì)穩(wěn)定,故對(duì)其研究相對(duì)較多,然而結(jié)果不盡相同。Antonides[164]通過對(duì)40例案件分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)玻璃體液可卡因濃度高于血液的占72%,但兩者沒有相關(guān)性,其認(rèn)為高玻璃體液濃度應(yīng)歸結(jié)于血液中可卡因的降解。Duer[165]以“總可卡因”即可卡因及其代謝物(愛康寧,愛康寧甲酯和苯甲酰愛康寧)濃度的總和為對(duì)象,獲得了“玻璃體液和外周血以及玻璃體液和心血濃度間的相關(guān)性分別為0.939和0.883”的結(jié)果,故筆者認(rèn)為玻璃體液與血液相同,分析可卡因是可靠的。也有報(bào)道玻璃體液濃度與血液濃度接近(平均值1.03;范圍0.36~2.94),認(rèn)為玻璃體液陽(yáng)性結(jié)果可以確認(rèn)血液中可卡因的存在但不能準(zhǔn)確估算血藥濃度[166]。Carvahlo[167]等發(fā)現(xiàn)在7例可卡因過量死亡案例中玻璃體液與血液呈現(xiàn)良好的相關(guān)性(可卡因r=0.98;苯甲酰愛康寧r=0.95),而在11例涉可卡因意外死亡案例中并非如此。另有研究表明,玻璃體液和血液可卡因、cocaethylene平均濃度(n=53)沒有顯著不同。這些結(jié)果差異突顯了參數(shù)的重要性,因可卡因死亡案件的攝藥時(shí)間、死亡時(shí)間、死后再分布和穩(wěn)定性不能控制,故根據(jù)玻璃體液水平不能外推死亡時(shí)血液可卡因濃度。

2.2.2 苯二氮卓類

對(duì)于硝基苯二氮卓類(硝西泮、氟硝西泮、氯硝西泮)及其氨基代謝物,Robertson[158]統(tǒng)計(jì)52個(gè)死亡案例血液和玻璃體液目標(biāo)物濃度的相關(guān)性:母體藥物為r=0.626,代謝物為r=0.764。作者稱血液與尿液、膽汁和肝臟的代謝物濃度也存在此類正相關(guān)關(guān)系。Scott[159]報(bào)道了17例死者的替馬西泮、地西泮和去甲西泮的相關(guān)系數(shù)分別為0.788、0.723和0.068,玻璃體液水平顯著低于血液。雖然有相關(guān)性的研究報(bào)道,但數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)果較為分散,可能與攝藥方式、攝藥至死亡時(shí)間以及尸體解剖時(shí)間等參數(shù)有關(guān)。其他研究給出了玻璃體液和血液的弱相關(guān)性和分散結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn),如去甲西泮(n=58,R2=0.473)、溴西泮(n=31,R2=0.345)和奧沙西泮(n=28,R2=0.588)。由此看來,玻璃體液濃度不能定量解釋其血液水平。

2.2.3 γ-羥基丁酸

γ-羥丁酸(GHB)天然存在于生物體,臨床上用于麻醉,同時(shí)GHB也作為濫用物質(zhì)成為死后毒物學(xué)的新生目標(biāo)物。死后血藥濃度解釋的目的是確定所發(fā)現(xiàn)的GHB屬內(nèi)源性還是外源性進(jìn)入。血液GHB水平升高會(huì)誤導(dǎo)提示外源性物質(zhì)的進(jìn)入,而玻璃體液可以驗(yàn)證血液水平的真實(shí)性。Kintz[168]稱可用“解釋樹”確定GHB來源,首先用心血和50 mg/L閾值來判斷GHB的存在,陽(yáng)性時(shí)則用外周血和玻璃體液進(jìn)一步證實(shí)。另有研究報(bào)道,分析心血、外周血、玻璃體液、尿液和腦脊液,發(fā)現(xiàn)玻璃體液水平高于血液水平,有時(shí)甚至是五個(gè)檢材中最高的[169]。在最近的綜述中,有學(xué)者強(qiáng)調(diào)閾值可用于個(gè)案的解釋而不是硬指標(biāo)[170],筆者觀察到隨著取樣和儲(chǔ)存技術(shù)的增強(qiáng),GHB閾值有下降的趨勢(shì)。

2.2.4 MDMA

De Letter[9]等證明在平衡穩(wěn)態(tài)時(shí),玻璃體液和血液MDMA濃度之間存在相關(guān)性,120 min和240 min時(shí)的相關(guān)系數(shù)分別為0.98和0.95。研究表明,玻璃體液MDMA濃度較血液有更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間(73 h)的穩(wěn)定性,更能代表生前的血液水平。玻璃體液可以用于推斷死亡時(shí)血液中MDMA濃度。

2.2.5 其他化合物

56例死亡案例研究發(fā)現(xiàn),血液和玻璃體液PCP水平間沒有相關(guān)性[161]。Holmgren[6]考察了血液和玻璃體液中46個(gè)目標(biāo)物于-20℃保存12個(gè)月后兩者間的相關(guān)性,結(jié)果顯示約一半目標(biāo)物(n=23),包括苯丙胺、地爾硫卓、曲馬多,文拉法辛等存在相關(guān)性,而化合物如氯丙咪嗪、氯氮平、舍曲林等則沒有相關(guān)性。鑒于這些結(jié)果基于的樣本量較小,不能支持從玻璃體液濃度外推至血液濃度,但可作為未來研究的基礎(chǔ)。

如上所述,死亡案件中用于從玻璃體液水平外推血液水平的基礎(chǔ)是兩者的相關(guān)性。然而,也有學(xué)者提出用玻璃體液地西泮濃度的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)來區(qū)分臨床治療和過量使用。

2.3 典型目標(biāo)物-乙醇

乙醇是法醫(yī)學(xué)鑒定實(shí)踐中普遍涉及的重要目標(biāo)物,也是充分體現(xiàn)玻璃體液價(jià)值的典型目標(biāo)物。通常準(zhǔn)確測(cè)定和正確解讀死者的血液乙醇濃度(BAC)是法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)工作者的重要任務(wù),對(duì)于死因確認(rèn)和案件性質(zhì)起著關(guān)鍵性的作用。然而由于尸體腐敗、乙醇死后生成、乙醇死后擴(kuò)散、交通和航空遇難污染以及血液樣本缺失等因素,使死后BAC的解釋和應(yīng)用遭受極大的挑戰(zhàn),于是人們把研究目標(biāo)集中于人體富含水的其他液體——玻璃體液。

Iona[171]進(jìn)行了較大規(guī)模的玻璃體液乙醇濃度(VAC)、尿液乙醇濃度(UAC)和BAC的相關(guān)性研究,統(tǒng)計(jì)分析顯示三者乙醇濃度存在顯著相關(guān)性,其中VAC與BAC的相關(guān)系數(shù)為0.887,VAC/BAC為1.07(平均值為1.11,SD為0.299)。相同的研究結(jié)果也有多個(gè)報(bào)道[172-173],如Jones在對(duì) 706個(gè)案例研究的基礎(chǔ)上得到VAC/BAC平均值為1.19,標(biāo)準(zhǔn)偏差為0.285;DiMaio報(bào)道VAC/BAC平均值為1.2等。Iona認(rèn)為,玻璃體液與血液乙醇濃度的相關(guān)性、可靠性優(yōu)于尿液,當(dāng)血液樣本缺失或懷疑BAC受死后因素影響(死后生成,腐敗損失、防腐干擾、死后再分布)時(shí),玻璃體液可作為血液的替代檢材或作為血液乙醇濃度解釋的質(zhì)量控制措施。如空難致人體嚴(yán)重撕裂傷,可引起廣泛的微生物污染因而生成大量乙醇(1.9 mg/mL),死后再分布或胃部擴(kuò)散也可引起心血BAC的假性升高,故某些情況下單純依據(jù)死后BAC易產(chǎn)生錯(cuò)誤的結(jié)論。此外,作者還認(rèn)為玻璃體液在乙醇分析中的價(jià)值體現(xiàn)在可以對(duì)BAC進(jìn)行追溯驗(yàn)證。由于VAC總體較BAC高,且峰值濃度(平衡)較血液延遲1~2 h,即乙醇吸收階段,VAC低于BAC;乙醇消除階段,VAC高于BAC,故玻璃體液可提供死者死亡前1~2h的BAC信息。血液與玻璃體液的儲(chǔ)存穩(wěn)定性研究也表明玻璃體液更有優(yōu)勢(shì)。Olsen[174]復(fù)評(píng)估了邁阿密法醫(yī)部門5~6年前收集的血液和玻璃體液樣本,結(jié)果BAC有35%的降低,VAC僅有6.1%的損失。

近年來,人們?cè)噲D用乙醇的體內(nèi)代謝物乙醛葡萄糖醛酸苷及酯類區(qū)分腐敗產(chǎn)生以及外污染,但這些新的marker是否可代替玻璃體液呢?目前的檢測(cè)水平尚有難度,因?yàn)锽AC需0.5 mg/mL以上才能同時(shí)檢出代謝物,但腐敗產(chǎn)生的BAC一般<0.3mg/mL,此時(shí)代謝物分析結(jié)果陰性,仍無法判斷是生前攝入還是死后形成。

2.4 生存時(shí)間

某些學(xué)者提出用血液/玻璃體液濃度比估計(jì)生存時(shí)間(即攝藥至死亡的時(shí)間間隔),其基本依據(jù)是外源性物質(zhì)從血液到玻璃體液需要一定的分布時(shí)間,攝藥初期血液/玻璃體液濃度比高于平衡時(shí)兩者的濃度比。Scott等[159]的案例數(shù)據(jù)研究表明,攝苯二氮卓類快速死亡的血液/玻璃體液濃度比更高,其提供了估計(jì)攝藥時(shí)間的方法,但作者強(qiáng)調(diào)該濃度比值可受各種因素尤其是死后再分布的影響。地西泮動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)?zāi)P脱芯勘砻?,肌注? h血液/玻璃體液濃度比為20,6h下降至4.5,藥后1~2h達(dá)平衡時(shí),比例為10,作者認(rèn)為血液/玻璃體液濃度比可作為判斷攝藥至死亡時(shí)間的補(bǔ)充工具。Antonides等[164]也調(diào)查分析了攝藥死亡案例,報(bào)道當(dāng)可卡因血藥濃度高于玻璃體液時(shí),死亡發(fā)生于攝藥后不久,此時(shí)血液中苯甲酰愛康寧水平雙倍于玻璃體液水平。

2.5 死后再分布

De Letter等[175]以兔實(shí)驗(yàn)?zāi)P蜑閷?duì)象,研究了MDMA的死后再分布,結(jié)果表明玻璃體液中MDMA濃度更穩(wěn)定,代表生前血液水平而不是死后血液水平。然而研究發(fā)現(xiàn),眼球壁的MDMA水平有升高現(xiàn)象,尤其是死亡時(shí)間較長(zhǎng)的,故存在擴(kuò)散的可能性。地高辛的死后再分布研究發(fā)現(xiàn),19例尸體的脈絡(luò)膜和視網(wǎng)膜組織中地高辛濃度非常高(63.9~485ng/g),接近心肌藥物水平和高于玻璃體液的發(fā)現(xiàn)(2.2~7.1ng/mL),筆者認(rèn)為這些差異表明存在從脈絡(luò)膜和視網(wǎng)膜組織至玻璃體液的死后再分布[176]。Mckinney[177]等研究了可卡因的死后再分布,實(shí)驗(yàn)豬靜脈給藥后5min處死,采集死亡時(shí)和死后8h體液,結(jié)果血液可卡因濃度沒有改變,而玻璃體液水平有較大上升,筆者認(rèn)為該濃度上升系死后再分布引起。玻璃體液可卡因的基線水平較低(平均為939ng/mL,血液平均為3245 ng/mL),而8 h后兩者接近(玻璃體液平均為3 067ng/mL;血液平均為3568ng/mL),作者推測(cè)視網(wǎng)膜組織可能是藥物積累的區(qū)域,死后釋放至玻璃體液。Maskell等[178]研究了海洛因代謝物嗎啡和3-嗎啡葡醛酸苷(M3G)的死后再分布,發(fā)現(xiàn)實(shí)驗(yàn)兔死后24h玻璃體液游離嗎啡濃度和總嗎啡濃度分別增加181%和425%,M3G濃度增加了1,002%。作者解釋玻璃體液中嗎啡、M3G濃度增加系特定組織中目標(biāo)物濃度擴(kuò)散所致。

上述研究表明,玻璃體液是防止受腹腔死后再分布影響的主要基質(zhì),但眼組織中累積的目標(biāo)物死后可擴(kuò)散至玻璃體液。

2.6 局限性

玻璃體液的局限性除了采樣量有限外,主要體現(xiàn)在法醫(yī)毒物學(xué)關(guān)注的定量解釋。各種實(shí)驗(yàn)動(dòng)物或尸體解剖研究結(jié)果表明,大多數(shù)目標(biāo)物的玻璃體液濃度和血液濃度不相關(guān)或存在顯著的分散度,故玻璃體液濃度通常不能外推至血藥濃度。這些研究結(jié)果也反映了各種不可控因素和未知參數(shù)的影響,如存活時(shí)間、死亡時(shí)間、眼科疾病和藥物相互作用等。要優(yōu)化玻璃體液在定量解釋中的效用,必須考慮以下可能性[13]。(1)要提高對(duì)玻璃體液中外源性物質(zhì)分布的認(rèn)知。雖然擴(kuò)散看似大多數(shù)化合物的運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)機(jī)制,但血液擴(kuò)散不僅僅是被動(dòng)的,還需要增強(qiáng)理解目標(biāo)物的生前分布作用和主動(dòng)運(yùn)輸機(jī)制。(2)探索目標(biāo)物在眼組織中的分布非常重要,特別是脈絡(luò)膜和視網(wǎng)膜有可能作為目標(biāo)物累積區(qū),死后進(jìn)行玻璃體液再分布。(3)必須運(yùn)用統(tǒng)計(jì)工具,以期最大限度的確定評(píng)估玻璃體液濃度的不確定性。即使發(fā)現(xiàn)高于血液的外源性物質(zhì)濃度,重要的是要根據(jù)案件的具體情況,報(bào)告玻璃體液結(jié)果的不確定性。

表1 涉毒死者玻璃體液和血液中目標(biāo)物濃度

續(xù)表1

續(xù)表1

續(xù)表1

續(xù)表1

續(xù)表1

續(xù)表1

續(xù)表1

續(xù)表1

3 結(jié)論

當(dāng)血液檢材缺失或血液檢材的可靠性可能受死后因素影響時(shí),需要有適宜的檢材替代。理想的替代檢材應(yīng)可發(fā)現(xiàn)血液中存在的相同外源性物質(zhì),具有相關(guān)的物質(zhì)濃度,不受死亡的影響,玻璃體液較為接近此理想狀態(tài)。從操作實(shí)踐的角度,玻璃體液易于取樣,儲(chǔ)存條件相對(duì)不高,樣品處理和分析較為簡(jiǎn)便。此外,由于法醫(yī)學(xué)涉及的大多數(shù)目標(biāo)物存在于玻璃體液,故玻璃體液可作為缺失血液檢材時(shí)篩選分析的替代檢材。某些目標(biāo)物(6-MAM、PCP、可卡因)的檢測(cè)窗口較血液更寬,這種定性篩選的優(yōu)勢(shì)可隨專用技術(shù)的開發(fā)及較低檢測(cè)閾值的實(shí)現(xiàn)而強(qiáng)化。雖然,玻璃體液與血液的比較研究顯示不同的相關(guān)性結(jié)果,但并不影響其驗(yàn)證性應(yīng)用。尤其是在延遲尸體解剖或質(zhì)疑血液的可靠性受死后因素影響的情況下,玻璃體液可作為血液分析的質(zhì)量控制措施。

玻璃體液在相當(dāng)部分國(guó)家的法醫(yī)學(xué)死亡鑒定中已成為毒物分析的常規(guī)檢材,借助本綜述期望得到同行的關(guān)注和共識(shí),以推動(dòng)玻璃體液在我國(guó)的推廣應(yīng)用。

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(本文編輯:卓先義)

Evaluation of Vitreous Humor in Forensic Toxicology Application

SHEN Min,XIANG Ping
(Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine,Shanghai Forensic Service Platform,Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice,Shanghai 200063,China)

Vitreous humor has become a specimen that attracts attentions and is worth studying because of its relatively independent anatomical characteristics.Drug concentrations in vitreous humor are less likely to be influenced by contamination,bacterial invasion,and postmortem redistribution.To promote the reliability of forensic toxicology results and to further study on the application of vitreous humor,this paper reviews the published quantitative and qualitative analysis for drugs in vitreous humor.The potential values and limitions of vitreous humor applied in forensic toxicology are discussed.It is proposed that vitreous humor is a suitable complementary specimen when blood is not available,or a control supplement to the blood analysis results,when they are affected by postmortem factors.

vitreous humor;postmortem toxicology;blood-ocular barrier;forensic toxicology;postmortem redistribution

DF795.1

A

10.3969/j.issn.1671-2072.2017.01.004

1671-2072-(2017)01-0023-22

2016-11-02

上海市科技攻關(guān)項(xiàng)目(15DZ1207500);上海市法醫(yī)學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室資助項(xiàng)目(14DZ2270800);上海市司法鑒定專業(yè)技術(shù)服務(wù)平臺(tái)資助項(xiàng)目(16DZ2290900)

沈敏(1955—),女,研究員,博士研究生導(dǎo)師,主要從事法醫(yī)毒物鑒定研究和司法鑒定管理工作。

E-mail:shenm@ssfjd.cn。

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