周志堅,王一然,趙明星,王雅杰,孫繼勇
1綏化市第一醫(yī)院外科,黑龍江 綏化 152000
2第二軍醫(yī)大學(xué)長海醫(yī)院腫瘤科,上海 200433
腫瘤的發(fā)生與多種因素相關(guān),是一個涉及多基因和多階段的生物學(xué)過程,最常見的表現(xiàn)為信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路發(fā)生變化[1],細(xì)胞分裂異常以及生長不受控制,其中DNA損傷修復(fù)障礙和增殖異常起著重要的作用[2]。GADD45A基因可以通過阻滯細(xì)胞周期、修復(fù)DNA損傷和促進(jìn)細(xì)胞凋亡等途徑減少細(xì)胞癌變的可能[3],所以GADD45A基因突變和腫瘤的發(fā)生有密切的關(guān)系,如肺癌[4]、食管癌[5]、卵巢癌[6]和前列腺癌[7]等。
GADD45A屬于GADD45基因家族,是DNA損傷修復(fù)的重要相關(guān)基因,還包括GADD45B和GADD45G等[8]。GADD45A基因位于1號染色體,全長4138 bp,含4個外顯子,轉(zhuǎn)錄的mRNA全長為1355 bp,翻譯的蛋白主要表達(dá)在細(xì)胞核內(nèi)。GADD45A基因是細(xì)胞生長阻滯和DNA損傷修復(fù)基因,是重要的抑癌基因,是p53和BRCA基因調(diào)控的下游基因。GADD45A基因的第3個內(nèi)含子區(qū)段,存在一個保守的p53結(jié)合位點,與p53結(jié)合后,PML/RARα和p53對GADD45A有共調(diào)控關(guān)系,可以促進(jìn)GADD45A基因的轉(zhuǎn)錄表達(dá)[9-10]。GADD45A還可以通過不依賴p53的其他途徑發(fā)揮作用,由BRCA1對GADD45A進(jìn)行調(diào)節(jié),再通過NEK2維持基因的穩(wěn)定[11]。
GADD45A在56.5%(35/62)的食道癌中表達(dá)陽性,同時GADD45A表達(dá)與病理分期相關(guān),其陽性表達(dá)的患者生存期更長,預(yù)后較好,而陰性表達(dá)者預(yù)后較差[5]。GADD45A多態(tài)性與卵巢癌的發(fā)病率及預(yù)后相關(guān),GADD45A攜帶T等位基因(TT+TC)患者的無復(fù)發(fā)生存期(recurrence free survival,RFS)和總生存期(overall survival,OS)更長,提示可以用其基因類型預(yù)測卵巢癌患者的預(yù)后[6]。Reis等[7]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),前列腺特異性抗原(prostate-specific antigen,PSA)的特異度不高,但是如果聯(lián)合檢測血液中的GADD45A甲基化DNA水平,敏感度和特異度分別達(dá)到94.1%和87.5%,ROC曲線下面積為0.937。Li等[12]在一項非小細(xì)胞肺癌的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),P53可以激活miRNA-138,激活的miRNA-138結(jié)合AGO2后,miRNA-130b表達(dá)降低,GADD45A表達(dá)升高,導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞G2/M期阻滯,抑制非小細(xì)胞肺癌細(xì)胞的增殖,說明GADD45A與非小細(xì)胞肺癌的惡性程度相關(guān)。在結(jié)腸癌化療效果與GADD45A關(guān)系的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),觀察組腫瘤組織GADD45A陽性表達(dá)率低于對照組,GADD45A與結(jié)直腸癌組織分化程度相關(guān),化療有效組GADD45A的陽性表達(dá)率高于無效組,差異均有統(tǒng)計學(xué)意義(P﹤0.05);GADD45A表達(dá)與卡培他濱+奧沙利鉑(XELOX)化療效果存在一定的聯(lián)系,推測可以通過檢測GADD45A的表達(dá)水平預(yù)測XELOX化療的效果[13]。GADD45A與激素受體的表達(dá)相關(guān),正常乳腺組織中GADD45A表達(dá)較低(16.3%),Luminal A型和B型的表達(dá)較高(65.3%和80.7%),三陰性乳腺癌的表達(dá)介于二者之間(32.0%),說明GADD45A可以作為乳腺癌預(yù)后的判斷指標(biāo),同時是潛在的治療靶點[14]。
中心體的復(fù)制與基因組穩(wěn)定有密切的關(guān)系,GADD45A通過對中心體的調(diào)節(jié)影響基因組的穩(wěn)定[15]。GADD45A缺失可以導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞S期監(jiān)測點功能喪失,而中心體的復(fù)制處于S期,中心體復(fù)制異常,直接導(dǎo)致基因組不穩(wěn)定。DNA去甲基化與基因的穩(wěn)定性有密切的關(guān)系。有研究表明,GADD45A在10-11易位蛋白1(ten-eleven translocation,TET1)去甲基化中發(fā)揮協(xié)同作用,5-羥甲基胞嘧啶(5-hydroxymethylcytosine,5-hmC)表達(dá)上調(diào),而5-甲酰胞嘧啶(5-formylcytosine,5-fC)和5-羧基胞嘧啶(5-carboxylcytosine,5-caC)表達(dá)下調(diào),去甲基化正常進(jìn)行[16]。此外,胸腺嘧啶DNA糖苷酶(thymine DNA glycosylase,TDG)也參與了報道基因(reporter gene)的去甲基化,敲除GADD45A后,TDG的目的基因的甲基化增加,去甲基化減少[17]。在惡性膠質(zhì)瘤中,輕鏈鐵蛋白可以促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞的增殖,同時伴隨著GADD45A表達(dá)抑制,如果轉(zhuǎn)染GADD45A,使其高表達(dá),可以抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞的增殖能力,減弱基因組穩(wěn)定性[15]。
研究發(fā)現(xiàn),當(dāng)細(xì)胞基因損傷導(dǎo)致GADD45A高表達(dá)時,細(xì)胞周期阻滯于G2/M期,而GADD45A的缺失導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞G2/M期數(shù)值減小,G2/M期阻滯需要以p21和p53依賴的方式進(jìn)行[18]。食品添加劑奧喹多司可以導(dǎo)致肝腫瘤細(xì)胞S期阻滯,使GADD45A、cyclin A、CDK2、p21和p53蛋白表達(dá)上調(diào)。如果下調(diào)GADD45A表達(dá),奧喹多司可以使S期阻滯更為明顯,細(xì)胞活力下降,DNA損傷增加。這說明GADD45A在奧喹多司導(dǎo)致的細(xì)胞周期阻滯中發(fā)揮重要的作用[19]。呋喃唑酮在肝腫瘤細(xì)胞中亦可發(fā)揮相同的作用[20]。SMAD4主要在細(xì)胞核中表達(dá),是TGF-β1下游信號因子,可以抑制c-MYC,激活p21和p15,從而抑制細(xì)胞的增殖;而在腫瘤細(xì)胞中,SMAD4表達(dá)常下調(diào),細(xì)胞逃避細(xì)胞周期阻滯和細(xì)胞凋亡,并且與GADD45A表達(dá)下調(diào)相關(guān)。如果GADD45A過表達(dá),可以通過SCFβ-trcp1抑制SMAD4的泛素化降解,保持其穩(wěn)定性,恢復(fù)細(xì)胞周期阻滯和細(xì)胞凋亡[21]。
GADD45A通過多種途徑導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞凋亡。GADD45A可能是通過上調(diào)p21和p53等DNA損傷修復(fù)基因與MTKI/MEKK4相互作用,活化p38和JNK通路,有效地促進(jìn)細(xì)胞凋亡[22]。GADD45A可以引發(fā)細(xì)胞骨架穩(wěn)定性降低,導(dǎo)致BIM從細(xì)胞骨架上解離、釋放,向線粒體轉(zhuǎn)移;在線粒體上積累的BIM蛋白與線粒體膜穩(wěn)定蛋白Bcl-2發(fā)生相互作用,形成BAX寡聚體;BAX寡聚體最終促使線粒體外膜通透性增強(qiáng),誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞發(fā)生凋亡[23]。Su等[24]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),抗腫瘤生物活性肽(anticancer bioactive peptide,ACBP)是一種通過人胃癌細(xì)胞免疫山羊獲得并提純的肽類,可以抑制胃癌細(xì)胞的增殖,促進(jìn)細(xì)胞凋亡,其中GADD45A的表達(dá)明顯上調(diào);如果下調(diào)GADD45A的mRNA和蛋白表達(dá),胃癌細(xì)胞對ACBP的敏感性下降,凋亡減少。Chen等[25]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),GADD45A在造血干細(xì)胞的分化中發(fā)揮重要的作用。經(jīng)過輻射損傷后,GADD45A缺失的造血干細(xì)胞的DNA修復(fù)更慢,凋亡率更低。累積的DNA損傷最終導(dǎo)致B細(xì)胞白血病的進(jìn)展。有進(jìn)一步的研究表明,在GADD45A野生型細(xì)胞中,修復(fù)DNA損傷和p38絲裂原激活蛋白激酶(mitogen activation protein kinase,MAPK)通路有關(guān),通過后者可以進(jìn)一步阻止DNA突變細(xì)胞分化[26]。
GADD45A與細(xì)胞自噬相關(guān),通過影響B(tài)ECN1和PIK3C3復(fù)合體的形成,其可以使包括食管鱗癌在內(nèi)的多種腫瘤細(xì)胞的LC3-Ⅱ和自噬體的表達(dá)下調(diào)。如果下調(diào)GADD45A表達(dá),腫瘤細(xì)胞的自噬體增多[27]。目前的研究表明,在腫瘤早期,自噬體的減少可以促進(jìn)腫瘤的進(jìn)展;但是在腫瘤的晚期,尤其是接受放療和化療之后,自噬體的增多促進(jìn)了腫瘤的進(jìn)展[28]。GADD45A可能在腫瘤晚期起到抑制細(xì)胞自噬的作用,所以GADD45A可能成為腫瘤治療的靶點,尤其是針對放療和化療后的耐藥患者。GADD45A與炎性反應(yīng)相關(guān),Mathew等[29]的研究表明,肺損傷模型小鼠的GADD45A表達(dá)上調(diào),維持損傷修復(fù)的大部分過程,作用時間可以達(dá)到6周;如果下調(diào)GADD45A表達(dá),肺泡灌洗液中炎性因子增加,提示GADD45A是肺部炎性反應(yīng)的重要調(diào)節(jié)因子。GADD45A通過阻斷mTOR/STAT3通路抑制腫瘤組織中血管形成。GADD45A缺失后,mTOR和STAT3通路介導(dǎo)VEGFa表達(dá)上調(diào),可以明顯增加腫瘤內(nèi)部血管的密度,促進(jìn)腫瘤生長[30]。
GADD45A作為細(xì)胞生長阻滯和DNA損傷調(diào)節(jié)基因,在細(xì)胞損傷反應(yīng)中通過不同的途徑發(fā)揮作用,維持基因組的穩(wěn)定,抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞的增殖。在當(dāng)前的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),不同的腫瘤組織,GADD45A的表達(dá)高低不同,腫瘤組織中的表達(dá)低于正常組織,細(xì)胞的凋亡率減少,細(xì)胞周期阻滯降低,增殖能力增強(qiáng);GADD45A高表達(dá)的腫瘤組織預(yù)后較好,化療效果也較好,但是理論上,伴有細(xì)胞生長阻滯和DNA損傷調(diào)節(jié)基因突變的腫瘤,對DNA損傷的藥物治療有更好的效果[31]。理論和實驗結(jié)果的差異需要進(jìn)一步探索,是實驗誤差還是其他特殊機(jī)制的作用,有待進(jìn)一步研究。此外,GADD45A不僅對疾病的預(yù)后有重要的意義,還可能成為腫瘤治療的新靶點。
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