黃俊鋒 魏錫坤 龍俞任
摘 要|堅(jiān)毅(Grit)的定義是對(duì)長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)目標(biāo)的熱情和堅(jiān)持不懈。不同于盡責(zé)性、自我控制、意志力,堅(jiān)毅實(shí)質(zhì)上是一種由熱情和堅(jiān)持不懈兩項(xiàng)性格優(yōu)勢(shì)所組成的,專注于追求高層次目標(biāo)(長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)目標(biāo))的積極品質(zhì)。目前,已有
的實(shí)證研究均表明,堅(jiān)毅是促進(jìn)個(gè)人成就的重要因素。堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就在行為和認(rèn)知上的作用機(jī)制分別表現(xiàn) 為刻意訓(xùn)練和下行反事實(shí)思維。影響堅(jiān)毅的因素主要有樂觀的解釋風(fēng)格、追求幸福的目的和成長(zhǎng)型思維模 式。未來的研究應(yīng)該著重深化堅(jiān)毅在中國文化背景下的心理學(xué)概念及其結(jié)構(gòu),改進(jìn)測(cè)量堅(jiān)毅的方法,進(jìn)一步 考察堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的作用機(jī)制,此外還需重點(diǎn)考察堅(jiān)毅的影響因素。
關(guān)鍵詞|堅(jiān)毅;自我控制;意志力;美德與性格優(yōu)勢(shì);高層次目標(biāo);個(gè)人成就
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有心理學(xué)家認(rèn)為堅(jiān)毅是促進(jìn)個(gè)人成就的因素之一(Duckworth,2006;Duckworth and Gross, 2014),該觀點(diǎn)引起了心理學(xué)、教育學(xué)和管理學(xué)等領(lǐng)域研究者的廣泛關(guān)注。本文將首先介紹堅(jiān)毅的概念, 并通過辨析堅(jiān)毅與相關(guān)概念闡明它的本質(zhì)。其次,介紹測(cè)量堅(jiān)毅的方法。再次,結(jié)合實(shí)證研究述評(píng)堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的促進(jìn)作用及其機(jī)制,還有它的影響因素。最后,對(duì)堅(jiān)毅未來的研究方向進(jìn)行了展望。
1?????? 堅(jiān)毅的概念
一直以來,各界研究者都認(rèn)為促進(jìn)個(gè)人成就的是一種非認(rèn)知因素(Galton,1892:33;Cox,1926: 218;Terman and Oden,1947;Howe,1999:15),但他們對(duì)這一非認(rèn)知因素都缺乏一個(gè)明確的界定。達(dá)克沃斯(Duckworth)在以往研究的基礎(chǔ)上將此總結(jié)為堅(jiān)毅(Duckworth,2006)。下文將介紹堅(jiān)毅的定義,
基金項(xiàng)目:廣東省哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)規(guī)劃2019年度一般項(xiàng)目“‘后真相時(shí)代大學(xué)生網(wǎng)絡(luò)意識(shí)形態(tài)安全教育導(dǎo)控研究(GD19CMK07)”階??? 段成果;2021年度教育部人文社會(huì)科學(xué)研究專項(xiàng)任務(wù)項(xiàng)目“‘后真相視域下高校網(wǎng)絡(luò)意識(shí)形態(tài)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)防范化解研究(21JDSZ3141)”;? 2020年廣東省科技創(chuàng)新戰(zhàn)略專項(xiàng)資金“攀登計(jì)劃”專項(xiàng)資金重點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目“‘后真相時(shí)代大學(xué)生國家安全意識(shí)表征形態(tài)與認(rèn)同教育研究并對(duì)其與相關(guān)概念進(jìn)行辨析。
1.1?? 堅(jiān)毅的定義
達(dá)克沃斯等人(Duckworth et al.,2007)將堅(jiān)毅定義為:對(duì)長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)目標(biāo)的熱情和堅(jiān)持不懈。他們認(rèn)為堅(jiān)毅可以驅(qū)使個(gè)體不停地接受挑戰(zhàn),即使因失敗和困境而停滯不前,也依然能對(duì)目標(biāo)保持著熱情,并為實(shí)現(xiàn)它而堅(jiān)持付出。
1.2?? 堅(jiān)毅與相關(guān)概念的辨析
堅(jiān)毅可以從人格心理學(xué)、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和積極心理學(xué)等三個(gè)視角來理解。第一,堅(jiān)毅是一種個(gè)體在追求 長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)目標(biāo)時(shí)其思想、情感和行為的統(tǒng)合模式,該模式持久而穩(wěn)定。從人格心理學(xué)的角度來看,堅(jiān)毅是 一種特質(zhì)。第二,堅(jiān)毅是一種非認(rèn)知因素。經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家傾向于將非認(rèn)知因素視為一種能力(Heckman and Rubinstein,2001;Heckman,Stixurd,and Urzua,2006), 即非認(rèn)知能力(Noncognitive Abilities)。從經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的角度來看,堅(jiān)毅是一種非認(rèn)知能力。第三,堅(jiān)毅由熱情(Passion/Zest)和堅(jiān)持不懈(Perseverance/ Persistence)兩項(xiàng)性格優(yōu)勢(shì)所組成,故從積極心理學(xué)的角度來看,堅(jiān)毅是一種積極的心理品質(zhì)。因此,堅(jiān)毅在概念上必然會(huì)與人格心理學(xué)、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和積極心理學(xué)中的相關(guān)概念,即盡責(zé)性(Conscientiousness)、自我控制(Self-control)和意志力(Virtue of Conscientiousness)發(fā)生重疊。為了更好地理解堅(jiān)毅的本質(zhì), 避免概念間的混淆,下文將對(duì)堅(jiān)毅與這三個(gè)概念進(jìn)行辨析。
1.2.1???????? 盡責(zé)性
經(jīng)典大五人格理論認(rèn)為,人格主要由盡責(zé)性、外傾性、宜人性、神經(jīng)質(zhì)和開放性等五種人格特質(zhì)構(gòu)成, 而這五種人格特質(zhì)各自由一系列的次要特質(zhì)組成(Mc Crae and Costa,1997)。其中,盡責(zé)性由成就、盡職、條理、計(jì)劃、自律和堅(jiān)持等多種次要特質(zhì)組成(Roberts et al.,2014)。如果將堅(jiān)毅看作一種特質(zhì)(Trait), 那么可以認(rèn)為堅(jiān)毅是由熱情、堅(jiān)持和成就等三種次要特質(zhì)組成。盡責(zé)性與堅(jiān)毅都能促使個(gè)體堅(jiān)持完成任務(wù)和達(dá)到目標(biāo);但熱情這一特質(zhì)從屬外傾性(Extraversion),是盡責(zé)性所缺乏的。堅(jiān)毅會(huì)有助于個(gè)體維持對(duì)長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)目標(biāo)的興趣,從而為達(dá)成目標(biāo)堅(jiān)持付出;而盡責(zé)性更多是個(gè)體為完成當(dāng)前目標(biāo)(如符合規(guī)則要求、計(jì)劃安排等)而堅(jiān)持工作。
1.2.2???????? 自我控制
自我控制是個(gè)體根據(jù)有價(jià)值的目標(biāo),抑制沖動(dòng)并改變相應(yīng)行為的能力(Baumeister and Heatheron, 1996)。與堅(jiān)毅類似,自我控制也是一種非認(rèn)知能力(Almlund et al.,2011;Borghans et al.,2008)。堅(jiān)毅和自我控制都具備了目標(biāo)定向性和行為調(diào)整性的特點(diǎn)。但兩者仍然存在區(qū)別。達(dá)克沃斯和格羅斯
(Duckworth and Gross,2014)以克魯格蘭斯基等人(Kruglanski et al.,2002)的目標(biāo)多層次模型(Hierarchical Goal Framework)為基礎(chǔ),區(qū)分了兩者的不同。他們認(rèn)為個(gè)體的目標(biāo)內(nèi)容是由幾個(gè)高層次目標(biāo)和一系列低層次目標(biāo)所組成,兩者為從屬關(guān)系。自我控制可以使個(gè)體在諸多低層次目標(biāo)中選擇有價(jià)值、符合規(guī)范的目標(biāo),并為之調(diào)整自身的行為。堅(jiān)毅則是讓個(gè)體調(diào)整自身的行為,以集中精力追求高層次目標(biāo),當(dāng)某個(gè)低層次目標(biāo)不是必須達(dá)成時(shí),堅(jiān)毅會(huì)使個(gè)體根據(jù)對(duì)高層次目標(biāo)的認(rèn)識(shí),將此低層次目標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)換為另一個(gè)低層次目標(biāo)(Duckworth and Gross,2014)。以一名快結(jié)束暑假生活的高一學(xué)生為例。他希望兩年后可以考入名牌大學(xué)(高層次目標(biāo))。在知道開學(xué)時(shí)就要進(jìn)行分班考試后,他希望可以好好復(fù)習(xí)考出好成績(jī)進(jìn)入重點(diǎn)班(有價(jià)值的目標(biāo)),但他也非常渴望在開學(xué)前去旅游(需要抑制的沖動(dòng))。最終他選擇了旅游, 這意味著此時(shí)他自我控制失敗了。不過這不代表他缺乏堅(jiān)毅,因?yàn)樗m然認(rèn)同考好分班考試(較低層次目標(biāo)之一)更有價(jià)值,但這并不能提高高考成績(jī)(高層次目標(biāo)),反而希望通過旅游(另一個(gè)低層次目標(biāo)) 來維持他準(zhǔn)備高考的熱情(低層次目標(biāo)之間的轉(zhuǎn)換)。最終,他懷著對(duì)考好高考的熱情,堅(jiān)持認(rèn)真學(xué)習(xí), 獲得了優(yōu)異的成績(jī)。這說明了該生具有高水平的堅(jiān)毅。所以,高堅(jiān)毅的個(gè)體不一定有高的自我控制能力, 而自我控制能力高的個(gè)體也不一定擁有高堅(jiān)毅。
1.2.3???????? 意志力
有研究者根據(jù)中國文化對(duì)皮德森和賽里格曼(Peterson and Seligman,2004)的 24 項(xiàng)性格優(yōu)勢(shì)和價(jià)值實(shí)踐分類體系(Values in Action Classification of Strengths)進(jìn)行了跨文化調(diào)適,確定了中國人美德
(Virtues)的基本結(jié)構(gòu),即親和力、生命力和意志力。意志力主要指一些個(gè)體內(nèi)部的積極品質(zhì),表現(xiàn)為個(gè)體在自我要求、自我約束、自我提升過程中的意志力,包含了判斷力、審慎、自我調(diào)節(jié)、堅(jiān)持不懈、學(xué)習(xí)、謙虛等 6 項(xiàng)性格優(yōu)勢(shì)。同時(shí),意志力也擁有盡責(zé)性和自我控制的某些特點(diǎn)(Duan et al.,2012; Duan et al.,2013)。堅(jiān)毅與意志力在概念上非常相似,它們均含判斷力(對(duì)高層次目標(biāo)的認(rèn)識(shí)和對(duì)低層次目標(biāo)的選擇轉(zhuǎn)換)、自我調(diào)控和堅(jiān)持不懈,缺乏條理性和計(jì)劃性等特點(diǎn)。不過兩者之間仍然存在 不同。堅(jiān)毅缺乏意志力所具備的審慎、學(xué)習(xí)和謙虛等三項(xiàng)性格優(yōu)勢(shì),但擁有一項(xiàng)意志力所缺乏的性格 優(yōu)勢(shì)——熱情。熱情是生命力(Vitality)中的一項(xiàng)性格優(yōu)勢(shì),是指以一種充滿活力、激情四射的心態(tài)感悟生活(Duan et al.,2012;Duan et al.,2013)。所以,堅(jiān)毅會(huì)因熱情而使個(gè)體對(duì)目標(biāo)充滿興趣。在追求目標(biāo)的過程中,和意志力強(qiáng)的個(gè)體相比,堅(jiān)毅強(qiáng)的個(gè)體會(huì)按照自身的興趣作出決策和行為。堅(jiān) 毅實(shí)質(zhì)上是一種由熱情和堅(jiān)持不懈兩項(xiàng)性格優(yōu)勢(shì)所組成的,專注于追求高層次目標(biāo)(長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)目標(biāo))的積 極品質(zhì)。
2?????? 堅(jiān)毅的測(cè)量方法
測(cè)量堅(jiān)毅的常用方法主要有問卷法和簡(jiǎn)歷評(píng)分法。達(dá)克沃斯等人(Duckworth et al.,2007/2009)認(rèn)為堅(jiān)毅與定義對(duì)應(yīng),由保持興趣(Consistency of Interest)和堅(jiān)持付出(Perseverance of Effort)兩個(gè)因子組成。前者是指?jìng)€(gè)體對(duì)某個(gè)目標(biāo)及任務(wù)保持著長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的興趣,后者是指?jìng)€(gè)體為了達(dá)成某個(gè)目標(biāo)和完成任務(wù)而持續(xù)付出努力。達(dá)克沃斯等人(2007/2009)開發(fā)了 12 題的堅(jiān)毅量表(Grit-O)并修訂了 8 題的簡(jiǎn)版堅(jiān)毅量表(Grit-S)。還有研究者編制了學(xué)業(yè)堅(jiān)毅量表(the Academic Grit Scale),以測(cè)量學(xué)生在數(shù)學(xué)課和閱讀課等不同課程中所表現(xiàn)出的堅(jiān)毅水平(Rojas et al.,2012)。為克服問卷法常見的缺點(diǎn),有研究者開發(fā)了簡(jiǎn)歷評(píng)分法(Resume Rating of Grit)來測(cè)量堅(jiān)毅(Robertson-Kraft and Duckworth,2012)。他們以個(gè)體的中學(xué)及大學(xué)簡(jiǎn)歷為材料,對(duì)其課內(nèi)外活動(dòng)經(jīng)歷(學(xué)習(xí)、體育、工作實(shí)習(xí)和社會(huì)服務(wù)等)進(jìn)行評(píng)分。評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是個(gè)體參與活動(dòng)的目標(biāo)一致性及持續(xù)性。例如個(gè)體某些經(jīng)歷都是為同一個(gè)目標(biāo)服務(wù)的,即目標(biāo)一致性;且能長(zhǎng)時(shí)間為同一個(gè)目標(biāo)參與相關(guān)活動(dòng),即行為持續(xù)性;則可以認(rèn)為此人的堅(jiān)毅得分較高,具有較高的堅(jiān)毅水平(Robertson-Kraft and Duckworth,2012)??偟膩碚f,堅(jiān)毅量表及其簡(jiǎn)版施測(cè)方便,也是最為常用的研究工具。而簡(jiǎn)歷評(píng)分法更符合堅(jiān)毅的長(zhǎng)時(shí)性特點(diǎn),但對(duì)研究人員的要求較高,而且難以在短時(shí)間內(nèi)收集到大樣本的數(shù)據(jù)。以上兩種方法都沒有從行為層面上測(cè)量堅(jiān)毅。加拉等人(Galla et al., 2014)開發(fā)了一套名為學(xué)業(yè)勤奮度任務(wù)(the academic diligence task,ADT)的測(cè)量工具,用于從行為層面上考察學(xué)生的堅(jiān)毅水平。即在課余時(shí)間中,研究者提供了兩種類型的活動(dòng)任務(wù)讓學(xué)生選擇。一種是耗時(shí)冗長(zhǎng)但十分有用的數(shù)學(xué)練習(xí);另一種是消遣活動(dòng)。如果學(xué)生選擇了長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的數(shù)學(xué)練習(xí),則可以認(rèn)為此學(xué)生的堅(jiān)毅水平較高;如果學(xué)生選擇了長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的消遣活動(dòng),那么就可以認(rèn)為此學(xué)生的堅(jiān)毅水平較低(Galla et al.,2014)。但這測(cè)量工具的信效度仍需要檢驗(yàn)。
3?????? 堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的促進(jìn)作用及其機(jī)制
3.1?? 堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的促進(jìn)作用
3.1.1???????? 學(xué)業(yè)
堅(jiān)毅對(duì)學(xué)業(yè)表現(xiàn)的作用是心理學(xué)和教育學(xué)所關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)。達(dá)克沃斯等人(Duckworth et al.,2007,研究 1)調(diào)查了 1545 名成年人,結(jié)果顯示個(gè)體堅(jiān)毅水平越高,其學(xué)歷越高。此外,他們對(duì) 139 名研究生進(jìn)行調(diào)查,結(jié)果顯示堅(jiān)毅能預(yù)測(cè)學(xué)生的學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)(Duckworth et al.,2007)。這一結(jié)論在不同類型的學(xué)生樣本中得到了驗(yàn)證。斯特雷霍恩(Strayhorn,2014)追蹤了在以白人學(xué)生為主的大學(xué)中學(xué)習(xí)的黑人學(xué)生, 結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)堅(jiān)毅能預(yù)測(cè)黑人學(xué)生的學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)。一項(xiàng)以邁阿密大學(xué)大一生為樣本的縱向研究也發(fā)現(xiàn)了堅(jiān)毅是預(yù)測(cè)學(xué)生學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)的因素(Chang,2014)。除了學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī),研究者還從完成學(xué)業(yè)的角度關(guān)注了堅(jiān)毅對(duì) 個(gè)體學(xué)業(yè)表現(xiàn)的積極作用。艾斯克瑞斯·溫克勒等人(Eskreis-Winkler et al.,2014)追蹤了 4813 名高中新生,結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)高堅(jiān)毅的學(xué)生更容易畢業(yè)。這研究結(jié)果得到了一項(xiàng)縱向研究的驗(yàn)證,堅(jiān)毅能良好預(yù)測(cè)學(xué)生能否完成學(xué)業(yè)(Chang,2014)。
3.1.2???????? 挑戰(zhàn)性任務(wù)
研究者也深入至挑戰(zhàn)性任務(wù)中考察堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)體任務(wù)表現(xiàn)的作用。達(dá)克沃斯等人(Duckworth et al., 2007)追蹤了西點(diǎn)軍校的新生,發(fā)現(xiàn)在諸多預(yù)測(cè)因素中,只有堅(jiān)毅可以良好地預(yù)測(cè)新生的軍事訓(xùn)練表現(xiàn)。此研究結(jié)果得到了重復(fù)——比起其他預(yù)測(cè)因素,堅(jiān)毅更能預(yù)測(cè)入伍候選人能否通過嚴(yán)酷的軍事考核,獲得優(yōu)異的軍事技能成績(jī)(Maddi et? al.,2012;Eskreis-Winkler? et al.,2014)。研究者也追蹤了全美拼字大賽(National Spelling Bees)的參賽者,發(fā)現(xiàn)堅(jiān)毅可以預(yù)測(cè)總決賽的最終成績(jī)(Duckworth et al.,2007; Duckworth et al,2011)。上述研究均表明,堅(jiān)毅能預(yù)測(cè)個(gè)體在不同挑戰(zhàn)性任務(wù)中的表現(xiàn)。
3.1.3???????? 一般職業(yè)
達(dá)克沃斯等人(Duckworth et al.,2007,研究 1)的開拓性研究還發(fā)現(xiàn)了在不同行業(yè)中,高堅(jiān)毅個(gè)體更換工作的次數(shù)更少。這是否意味著在一般職業(yè)中,堅(jiān)毅水平高的個(gè)體會(huì)有更良好的工作表現(xiàn)?艾斯克瑞斯·溫克勒等人對(duì) 714 名銷售人員進(jìn)行追蹤研究發(fā)現(xiàn),堅(jiān)毅可以預(yù)測(cè)銷售人員的業(yè)務(wù)表現(xiàn)。另外,以住院醫(yī)師和新手教師為被試的縱向研究也得到了類似的結(jié)果。堅(jiān)毅水平較低是住院醫(yī)師放棄考核培訓(xùn)而離職的重要原因(Burkhart et al.,2014;Salles et al.,2014)。堅(jiān)毅也是預(yù)測(cè)新手教師離職意愿和教學(xué)績(jī)效的因素(Duckworth,Quinn and Seligman,2009;Robertson-Kraft and Duckworth,2014)。
3.2?? 堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的作用機(jī)制
3.2.1???????? 刻意訓(xùn)練
刻意訓(xùn)練(Deliberate Practice)是指一種專門為提高當(dāng)前某種技能水平而精心設(shè)計(jì)的活動(dòng)(Ericsson, 1993)。堅(jiān)毅強(qiáng)的個(gè)體會(huì)投入大量時(shí)間進(jìn)行刻意訓(xùn)練,以求達(dá)到既定目標(biāo)(Duckworth et al.,2011)。在一項(xiàng)以全美拼字大賽決賽的參賽者為樣本的縱向研究中,大部分堅(jiān)毅水平高的參賽者都選擇了刻意訓(xùn)練。研究結(jié)果顯示,刻意訓(xùn)練在堅(jiān)毅和比賽成績(jī)間起完全中介作用(Duckworth et al.,2011)。
3.2.2???????? 反事實(shí)思維
反事實(shí)思維(Counterfactual Thinking) 是堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的另一種作用機(jī)制(Kwok,Buchl,and Duckworth,2015)。反事實(shí)思維指在心理上對(duì)已發(fā)生事實(shí)進(jìn)行否定,進(jìn)而構(gòu)建一種可能性假設(shè)的思維活動(dòng),是比較“實(shí)際結(jié)果”和“假設(shè)結(jié)果”哪一個(gè)更好的思維過程(Roese,1997)。Roese 認(rèn)為反事實(shí)思維可分成上行反事實(shí)思維(Upward Counterfactual Thinking)和下行反事實(shí)思維(Downward Counterfactual Thinking)兩種,持前者的個(gè)體傾向于認(rèn)為“假設(shè)結(jié)果”比“實(shí)際結(jié)果”要好,持后者的個(gè)體則會(huì)認(rèn)為“假設(shè)結(jié)果”比“實(shí)際結(jié)果”要差。有研究者要求西點(diǎn)軍校的新學(xué)員想象若自己不是西點(diǎn)軍校生,自己此時(shí)是會(huì)在干什么,并比較“假設(shè)結(jié)果”與“實(shí)際結(jié)果”的優(yōu)劣(Kwok et al.,2015)。他們發(fā)現(xiàn),高堅(jiān)毅學(xué)員普遍認(rèn)為“假設(shè)結(jié)果”遠(yuǎn)沒有“實(shí)際結(jié)果”好,有些甚至表示自己難以想象出“假設(shè)結(jié)果”。反之, 低堅(jiān)毅學(xué)員則普遍認(rèn)為“假設(shè)結(jié)果”要比“實(shí)際結(jié)果”好得多。換言之,高堅(jiān)毅學(xué)員對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)更滿意,更愿意堅(jiān)持完成軍事訓(xùn)練。研究者還發(fā)現(xiàn)高堅(jiān)毅學(xué)員的退學(xué)率要遠(yuǎn)低于低堅(jiān)毅學(xué)員的退學(xué)率,下行反事實(shí)思維在堅(jiān)毅和退學(xué)之間起完全中介作用(Kwok et al.,2015)。
上述工作都是探索堅(jiān)毅作用機(jī)制的有益嘗試,但仍需要大量實(shí)證研究對(duì)他們的結(jié)果加以驗(yàn)證。如果上述兩項(xiàng)研究均得到了重復(fù),那么可以認(rèn)為堅(jiān)毅是從認(rèn)知(對(duì)目標(biāo)持長(zhǎng)久的興趣)和行為(堅(jiān)持不懈地練習(xí))兩個(gè)方面來促進(jìn)個(gè)人成就的。
4?????? 影響堅(jiān)毅的因素
4.1?? 樂觀的解釋風(fēng)格
樂觀的解釋風(fēng)格(Optimistic Explanatory Style)是指?jìng)€(gè)體將壞事件歸因于外部的、不穩(wěn)定的、具體的原因;將好事件歸因于內(nèi)部的、穩(wěn)定的、普遍的原因(Seligman and Schulman,1986)。有研究者認(rèn)為, 傾向于樂觀地解釋事件原因的個(gè)體,在遇到困難時(shí)更能表現(xiàn)出堅(jiān)持不懈(Seligman and Schulman,1986; Peterson,2000)。由于堅(jiān)持不懈是堅(jiān)毅結(jié)構(gòu)中的一個(gè)因子,所以樂觀的解釋風(fēng)格可能會(huì)影響堅(jiān)毅。達(dá)克 沃斯等人(2009)的研究支持了這點(diǎn),他們發(fā)現(xiàn)了個(gè)體的堅(jiān)毅與樂觀的解釋風(fēng)格呈顯著正相關(guān)。但是上述研究均為橫斷研究,日后需要縱向研究來厘清兩者之間的因果關(guān)系。
4.2?? 追求幸福的目的
有研究者以塞利格曼(2012)的幸福成分理論為基礎(chǔ),探討堅(jiān)毅的影響因素。研究結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)堅(jiān)毅與個(gè)體追求幸福的目的(Motivational Orientations to Happiness)有關(guān):如果是為了追求充實(shí)的生活(The Engaged Life),或者為了追求有意義的生活(The Meaningful Life),那么個(gè)體的堅(jiān)毅水平會(huì)更高。反之, 如果是為了追求愉快等情感上的幸福(The Pleasure Life),那么個(gè)體的堅(jiān)毅水平則較低(Von Culin, Tsukayama,and Duckworth,2014)。希爾、布魯和布朗克(Hill,Burrow,and Bronk,2014)對(duì) 165 名大學(xué)生進(jìn)行了一個(gè)學(xué)期的追蹤。研究結(jié)果顯示,在學(xué)期開始時(shí)(T1),有意義的生活目標(biāo)和積極的情感均與堅(jiān)毅呈顯著正相關(guān),但在學(xué)期結(jié)束時(shí)(T2),只有有意義的生活目標(biāo)與堅(jiān)毅呈顯著正相關(guān)。這說明了追求幸福的目的會(huì)對(duì)個(gè)體堅(jiān)毅產(chǎn)生影響。
4.3?? 成長(zhǎng)型思維模式
成長(zhǎng)型思維模式(Growth Mindset)是指一種個(gè)體認(rèn)為自身的某些特質(zhì)是可以隨著個(gè)人的努力程度和時(shí)間投入而發(fā)生改變的思維模式(李抗、楊文登,2015)。德韋克(Dweck,2015)認(rèn)為成長(zhǎng)型思維模式的形成有助于堅(jiān)毅的產(chǎn)生。這是因?yàn)槌殖砷L(zhǎng)型思維模式的個(gè)體會(huì)認(rèn)為能力是可變的,目前無法解決的問題也會(huì)隨著自己能力的提升而得到解決,從而表現(xiàn)出對(duì)目標(biāo)的專一和堅(jiān)持不懈。不過此觀點(diǎn)仍需要實(shí)證研究來檢驗(yàn)。
上述三種影響堅(jiān)毅的因素都是內(nèi)部因素,而影響堅(jiān)毅的外部因素并沒有得到研究。所以,不僅需要繼續(xù)加強(qiáng)研究其他內(nèi)部因素如基因?qū)?jiān)毅的影響,還需要加強(qiáng)研究外部因素如家庭對(duì)堅(jiān)毅的影響。
5?????? 總結(jié)與展望
5.1?? 深化研究堅(jiān)毅的概念和結(jié)構(gòu)
本文雖然認(rèn)同達(dá)克沃斯等人(Duckworth et al.,2007)對(duì)堅(jiān)毅在心理學(xué)上的定義及其結(jié)構(gòu),但是由于此概念是在西方文化背景下提出的,故在中國文化背景下,堅(jiān)毅的心理學(xué)概念該如何界定?其結(jié)構(gòu)由何而組成?又該怎樣測(cè)量?這些都是國內(nèi)未來相關(guān)研究中的重要問題。
5.2?? 改進(jìn)堅(jiān)毅的測(cè)量方法
現(xiàn)有測(cè)量堅(jiān)毅的方法主要是問卷自評(píng)法。一直以來,有不少學(xué)者認(rèn)為問卷自評(píng)法存在著明顯的缺點(diǎn), 如外顯態(tài)度與內(nèi)隱態(tài)度往往存在著巨大的差異和社會(huì)贊許性問題等(張登浩、滕飛、潘雪,2014)。問卷的他評(píng)法也可以應(yīng)用到堅(jiān)毅的測(cè)量中。
毅本身具長(zhǎng)時(shí)性的特點(diǎn),考慮到現(xiàn)在正值大數(shù)據(jù)潮流,人們的生活也離不開移動(dòng)設(shè)備,若能開發(fā)出一套以手機(jī)為載體的工具便可實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)堅(jiān)毅的長(zhǎng)時(shí)性測(cè)量,能對(duì)大樣本被試進(jìn)行長(zhǎng)期追蹤和數(shù)據(jù)收集,以考察堅(jiān)毅的前因后果及其機(jī)制。
5.3?? 進(jìn)一步探究堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的作用
作為一種積極品質(zhì),堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就有促進(jìn)作用,但仍需要擴(kuò)展研究對(duì)象和領(lǐng)域,以進(jìn)一步確定堅(jiān)毅對(duì)個(gè)人成就的影響是否具有促進(jìn)性和普遍性。另外,積極品質(zhì)并非總能為個(gè)體帶來正面的影響(McNulty and Fincham,2012;Mc Nulty,2010;Mc Nulty and Russell,2010),也有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)了堅(jiān)毅是網(wǎng)癮的成因之一(Maddi et al.,2013),堅(jiān)毅作為一種積極品質(zhì)也該有其消極的一面。例如,堅(jiān)毅水平高的個(gè)體可能會(huì)因?yàn)槠錈崆楹鸵延型度氤杀径荒芾硇缘乜创呀?jīng)做出的付出,更容易造成沉沒成本效應(yīng)
(Sunk-cost Effect)。未來研究除了繼續(xù)關(guān)注堅(jiān)毅的積極作用,也應(yīng)關(guān)注堅(jiān)毅的消極作用。
5.4?? 加強(qiáng)研究堅(jiān)毅的作用機(jī)制與影響因素
盡管有研究涉及了堅(jiān)毅的作用機(jī)制與影響因素,但仍需要大量的實(shí)證研究來重復(fù)驗(yàn)證。除此,已有研究分別從認(rèn)知和行為對(duì)堅(jiān)毅的作用機(jī)制進(jìn)行探索,但兩者都缺乏對(duì)情緒的考慮。關(guān)于堅(jiān)毅的作用機(jī)制與影響因素的研究現(xiàn)處于起步階段,這是未來堅(jiān)毅研究中的一個(gè)核心課題,同時(shí)也是一個(gè)非常具有挑戰(zhàn)性的課題。
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Grit: A Determinate Character of Triumphing Success
Huang Junfeng1?????? Wei Xikun2??????? Long Yuren2
1.????? School of Marxism, Shunde Polytechnic, Foshan;
2.????? School of Design, Shunde Polytechnic, Foshan
Abstract: Grit, defined as passion and perseverance for long-term goals, is related but separable with conscientiousness, self-control and virtue of conscientiousness. In other words, grit is a positive character focusing on individuals super-ordinate goals. Based on the interest of super-ordinate goals and the current situation, grittier people will regulate their cognition and behavior for pursuing highest level goals. Theoretically and empirically, grit is essential to success in different areas. Moreover, downward counterfactual thinking and deliberate practice are cognitive and behavioral mechanisms linking grit to self-achievement, respectively. The psychological antecedents of grit include optimistic explanatory style, motivational orientations to happiness and growth mindset. However, future research should aim to make a thorough inquiry on the concept and structure of grit in the Chinese context, refine measurements of grit, explore the positive and negative effects of grit, and study correlated antecedents and their interactions of grit for building its framework.
Key words: Grit; Self-control; Conscientiousness; Virtues and character strengths; Super-ordinate goal; Self-achievement