劉巖,陳麗琴
內(nèi)蒙古醫(yī)科大學(xué)基礎(chǔ)醫(yī)學(xué)院法醫(yī)學(xué)系,呼和浩特 010059
手足口病是由腸道病毒引起的傳染病,多數(shù)溫和,具有自限性。主要癥狀表現(xiàn)為發(fā)熱,手、足、臀部皮疹,皰疹性咽峽炎等,少數(shù)病例可發(fā)展為重癥,如腦炎、腦干腦炎、急性弛緩性麻痹、神經(jīng)源性肺水腫,遺留后遺癥甚至死亡[1]。目前公認(rèn)的導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥的病原體是腸道病毒71型 (enterovirus 71,EV71)。臨床資料顯示,EV71感染所致手足口病較其他腸道病毒進(jìn)展速度更快,可有高熱、肢體運(yùn)動失調(diào)、昏迷、抽搐等神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)損害及呼吸、循環(huán)功能受損表現(xiàn),臨床癥狀與體征十分吻合[2]。
自1969年在美國加利福尼亞州中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病患兒糞便中首次分離到EV71以來[3],EV71所致手足口病在國內(nèi)外廣泛傳播,我國北京[4]、臺灣地區(qū)[5]、廣東[6]、遼寧[3]、山東[7]、安徽[8]等地,以及日本[9]、新加坡[10]、越南[11]、馬來西亞[12]、德國[13]等國均發(fā)生過較大規(guī)模流行。EV71有3個(gè)基因型別(A、B、C),包括A1、A2,B1~B5和C1~C5亞型[9,11,13,14]。日本曾發(fā)現(xiàn)A1亞型,與20世紀(jì)70年代歐洲引起脊髓灰質(zhì)炎樣癱瘓的病毒基因型接近,隨后在1998~2003年的手足口病病例中分離到B5亞型[9]。2000年9~10月新加坡手足口病流行期間,在死亡病例陽性標(biāo)本中均檢測到EV71[10]。2005年在越南南部暴發(fā)手足口病病例中發(fā)現(xiàn)C5亞型[11]。2007年法國手足口病流行的致死性病原體屬C2亞型[15]。我國最多見的是C4亞型[8]。我國對2008年5月~2009年12月EV71感染所致1 065 000例手足口病病例統(tǒng)計(jì)發(fā)現(xiàn),其中91.9%<5歲,發(fā)病高峰在1歲以下,男性多于女性;北京、天津、上海、浙江、海南為高發(fā)地區(qū),4~8月為高發(fā)月份,且城市高于農(nóng)村[16]。
近年來手足口病暴發(fā)呈增多趨勢,重癥手足口病給患者家庭帶來沉重的經(jīng)濟(jì)和精神負(fù)擔(dān)。目前對EV71致病機(jī)制的研究及藥物和疫苗的篩選仍處于實(shí)驗(yàn)階段,而適宜的體外細(xì)胞及動物模型是開展各種實(shí)驗(yàn)的前提。本文總結(jié)了近年來常用的細(xì)胞系和小鼠模型,以期為早日攻克手足口病提供一定的幫助。
1.1.1RD細(xì)胞即人橫紋肌肉瘤細(xì)胞,常用于EV71的培養(yǎng)和分離。在提取單克隆抗體以區(qū)別臨床上感染病毒種類的實(shí)驗(yàn)中,RD細(xì)胞可作為EV71增殖的感染細(xì)胞[17]。另外,RD細(xì)胞對EV71高度易感,有研究者認(rèn)為此系其表面存在人清道夫受體B2(scavenger receptor B2,SCARB2)。Yamayoshi等[18]將RD細(xì)胞的染色體DNA轉(zhuǎn)染至不易感染EV71的小鼠L929細(xì)胞,得到2個(gè)攜帶人類基因的單克隆細(xì)胞系Ltr051和Ltr246。應(yīng)用人微陣列基因分析及聚合酶鏈反應(yīng)(polymerase chain reaction,PCR)技術(shù)擴(kuò)增轉(zhuǎn)化株的SCARB2等,發(fā)現(xiàn)轉(zhuǎn)化株穩(wěn)定表達(dá)人SCARB2。用EV71的亞型SK-EV006感染L-SCARB2細(xì)胞(Ltr051、Ltr246)和RD細(xì)胞,48 h后2種細(xì)胞即可出現(xiàn)病變;進(jìn)一步用EV71的亞型BrCr (基因型A)、Nagoya (基因型B)和Isehara (基因型C)感染L-SCARB2細(xì)胞,結(jié)果與RD細(xì)胞的易感性相似。這一結(jié)果表明,SCARB2可參與多種EV71亞型導(dǎo)致的手足口病。EV71對L-SCARB2細(xì)胞和RD細(xì)胞的感染可被SCARB2抗體以劑量依賴性方式抑制,證明SCARB2與EV71感染相關(guān)。RD細(xì)胞還可用于體外抗EV71藥物實(shí)驗(yàn)以評估藥效,利巴韋林和普拉康納利(pleconaril)均可有效提高EV71感染的RD細(xì)胞的存活能力,用藥細(xì)胞極少出現(xiàn)細(xì)胞病變[19]。
1.1.2SF268細(xì)胞即人膠質(zhì)母細(xì)胞瘤細(xì)胞。由于EV71易侵犯膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞,參與感染細(xì)胞DNA斷裂、磷脂酰絲氨酸遷移等凋亡過程,SF268細(xì)胞常用于此方面的研究。Shih等[20]將SF268細(xì)胞作為易感細(xì)胞,應(yīng)用紫外線滅活EV71、RNA合成抑制劑及氯喹阻礙病毒脫衣殼等干預(yù)凋亡各相關(guān)階段,觀察到凋亡的發(fā)生繼發(fā)于病毒吸附、入胞、脫衣殼等過程之后,感染細(xì)胞的凋亡主要在病毒蛋白合成和病毒復(fù)制階段進(jìn)行,病毒蛋白合成對凋亡的啟動極其重要。
1.1.3SK-N-MC和SK-N-SH細(xì)胞即人神經(jīng)母細(xì)胞瘤細(xì)胞。Chang等[21]用EV71感染SK-N-MC、SF268、RD、Vero等細(xì)胞,研究神經(jīng)細(xì)胞和非神經(jīng)細(xì)胞被感染后的凋亡通路。EV71可導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞DNA斷裂、磷脂酰絲氨酸遷移,凋亡前細(xì)胞色素C從線粒體流入細(xì)胞質(zhì),啟動caspase-9的活化過程,通過線粒體途徑和caspase-9途徑誘導(dǎo)神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡;而caspase-8的活化只在非神經(jīng)細(xì)胞中存在。SK-N-SH細(xì)胞系曾作為EV71的感染細(xì)胞用于牛乳鐵傳遞蛋白的抗EV71測試,該乳鐵蛋白可通過與EV71和宿主細(xì)胞相互作用誘導(dǎo)I型干擾素、白細(xì)胞介素6(interleukin 6,IL-6)等產(chǎn)生,抑制EV71感染,是治療EV71所致手足口病的藥物之一[22]。
1.1.4Caco-2細(xì)胞即人克隆結(jié)腸腺癌細(xì)胞。由于其起源于人腸細(xì)胞,在特殊培養(yǎng)條件下可分化為腸上皮細(xì)胞,且細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)技術(shù)較為成熟,因此廣泛應(yīng)用于體外實(shí)驗(yàn)研究。常與SK-N-SH細(xì)胞共同用于EV71的培養(yǎng)、分離和感染。有報(bào)道,在SK-N-SH和Caco-2細(xì)胞接種EV71的4643和MP4亞型,比較2種亞型在不同細(xì)胞中的生長速度,再將培養(yǎng)的病毒接種新生小鼠,從而選擇小鼠敏感的EV71亞型用于中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)感染研究[23]。
1.1.5RD-18S細(xì)胞即克隆的人橫紋肌肉瘤細(xì)胞。在手足口病流行地區(qū),往往存在多種類型病毒,需用多種細(xì)胞如RD-18S、Vero、 HeLa、GL-37等作為培養(yǎng)細(xì)胞進(jìn)行病毒增殖,并用多種技術(shù)如中和抗體測定、反轉(zhuǎn)錄PCR(reverse transcriptase-PCR,RT-PCR)擴(kuò)增、核苷酸序列分析等測定病毒類型[24]。
1.1.6HeLa細(xì)胞即人宮頸癌細(xì)胞。細(xì)胞培養(yǎng)技術(shù)周期長且特異性較低,短期內(nèi)難以用于臨床診斷,因此RT-PCR是目前廣泛采用的手足口病病毒基因擴(kuò)增技術(shù),在應(yīng)用RT-PCR前需將臨床提取的帶有病毒的樣本接種于易感細(xì)胞進(jìn)行增殖,HeLa細(xì)胞和RD細(xì)胞較為常用[10]。
1.1.7DLD-1腸細(xì)胞即人結(jié)直腸腺癌上皮細(xì)胞。該細(xì)胞表面存在的唾液酸聚糖(sialylated glycan)是EV71的受體之一,與EV71結(jié)合能感染細(xì)胞,而唾液酸酶能抑制EV71的感染與復(fù)制。天然存在于人乳中的唾液酸偶聯(lián)的抑制性多糖對DLD-1腸細(xì)胞的EV71感染也有明顯降低作用,這為母乳喂養(yǎng)預(yù)防EV71感染提供了客觀證據(jù)[25]。
1.2.13T3-SCARB2細(xì)胞隨著SCARB2的發(fā)現(xiàn),近年來有研究者將人SCARB2基因整合入NTH3T3小鼠成纖維細(xì)胞,獲得SCARB2的轉(zhuǎn)基因細(xì)胞。Lin等[26]用EV71感染包括3T3-SCARB2細(xì)胞在內(nèi)的3種易感細(xì)胞,發(fā)現(xiàn)EV71衣殼蛋白的表達(dá)程度在3T3-SCARB2細(xì)胞最高,在RD細(xì)胞居中,在Vero細(xì)胞最低,從而證明了SCARB2轉(zhuǎn)基因細(xì)胞的易感性。同時(shí),還發(fā)現(xiàn)網(wǎng)格蛋白依賴的胞吞作用是EV71入胞的通路,這一通路需在pH值較低的內(nèi)涵體酸化環(huán)境中進(jìn)行。小干擾RNA(small interfering RNA,siRNA)可干擾EV71入胞,這為siRNA成為治療EV71感染的候選方法之一提供了證據(jù)。
1.2.2Ltr051細(xì)胞即SCARB2轉(zhuǎn)基因細(xì)胞。用RD細(xì)胞DNA轉(zhuǎn)染小鼠L929細(xì)胞,獲得攜帶人SCARB2基因的細(xì)胞系Ltr051和Ltr246。EV71感染 Ltr051、Ltr246和RD細(xì)胞的實(shí)驗(yàn)證明,Ltr051細(xì)胞較Ltr246細(xì)胞更易感,高效表達(dá)人SCARB2基因。研究表明,Ltr051和RD細(xì)胞對EV71具有相似的易感性[18]。這一研究成功建立了體外SCARB2動物細(xì)胞模型,從而使Ltr051鼠細(xì)胞能模擬人類細(xì)胞用于EV71感染機(jī)制的研究。
1.3.1Vero細(xì)胞即非洲綠猴腎細(xì)胞。常將EV71接種于Vero細(xì)胞增殖,提取的EV71滅活后注入實(shí)驗(yàn)動物體內(nèi)進(jìn)行疫苗研究[27,28]。另外,在EV71毒力和抗原性等研究中,Vero細(xì)胞可用于病毒RNA轉(zhuǎn)染載體及從感染動物組織中分離病毒[29]。將EV71 C4亞型Hn2在Vero細(xì)胞中增殖,滅活后接種實(shí)驗(yàn)動物,行單克隆抗體測定,對制備抗EV71的免疫制劑有重要意義[30]。
1.3.2THP-1細(xì)胞即人單核細(xì)胞。Han[31]等將不同濃度的靜脈注射丙種球蛋白(intravenous immunogloblin,IVIG)與EV71混合孵育后感染THP-1細(xì)胞,發(fā)現(xiàn)高濃度IVIG抑制EV71感染,而低濃度IVIG增加感染。這種劑量對感染程度的影響支持了抗體依賴性增強(qiáng)(antibody-dependent enhancement,ADE)假說,可協(xié)助指導(dǎo)抗EV71藥物的制備。
1.3.3JurkatT細(xì)胞即人急性T細(xì)胞白血病細(xì)胞株。近年來,P選擇素糖蛋白配體 1(P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1,PSGL-1)與SCARB2成為備受關(guān)注的EV71細(xì)胞受體,因?yàn)镴urkat T細(xì)胞表面存在PSGL-1受體,與EV71結(jié)合能進(jìn)入細(xì)胞,可用于研究PSGL-1介導(dǎo)的EV71感染[32,33]。
1.3.4GL-37細(xì)胞即克隆的非洲綠猴腎細(xì)胞。曾用于甲型肝炎病毒的分離。在應(yīng)用Vero細(xì)胞難以分離EV71的手足口病流行地區(qū),GL-37細(xì)胞可用于病毒培養(yǎng)[24]。
1.3.5巨噬細(xì)胞最近研究發(fā)現(xiàn),巨噬細(xì)胞對EV71具有吞噬、抑制復(fù)制等作用。將取自美國癌癥研究所(Institute of Cancer Research,ICR)成年小鼠的巨噬細(xì)胞體外培養(yǎng),接種EV71,結(jié)果顯示病毒滴度逐漸下降,RNA復(fù)制減緩,而接種EV71的RD細(xì)胞中病毒滴度明顯上升。免疫熒光檢測發(fā)現(xiàn),病毒抗原主要集中分布于巨噬細(xì)胞的溶酶體[34],這一發(fā)現(xiàn)使人們對EV71感染后機(jī)體的免疫機(jī)制有了進(jìn)一步了解。
有研究表明,小鼠對EV71的敏感性隨年齡增長而降低,甚至消失。1日齡小鼠對EV71敏感性最高[35],因此新生幼鼠應(yīng)用得最多,且常用于神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)并發(fā)癥實(shí)驗(yàn)。Chen等[36]用1日齡ICR小鼠建立口腔EV71感染模型,動態(tài)觀察其VP1抗原在小鼠組織及器官中分布的變化。感染6 h可在腸組織檢出,24 h在胸段脊髓觀察到,50 h病毒上行至頸髓,78 h至腦干,表明EV71在幼鼠中的感染是沿神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)路徑擴(kuò)散的。不同種系的幼鼠感染后亦較快出現(xiàn)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀,如用1日齡昆明小鼠建立的二次感染模型,初次感染無毒力病毒后的無癥狀幼鼠在第2次感染后可并發(fā)肢體癱瘓、角弓反張等神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀,死亡率明顯升高[30]。另外,小鼠對EV71亞型MP4敏感,給1日齡ICR小鼠腹腔注射半數(shù)致死量MP4和EV71另一亞型4643,感染MP4的小鼠死亡速度快,并引起中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀[23]。滅活疫苗實(shí)驗(yàn)中,給2日齡BALB/c小鼠腹腔注射半數(shù)致死量EV71亞型Hn2,24 h后再以不同稀釋濃度的滅活EV71-Hn2制備的疫苗給予免疫,可誘導(dǎo)小鼠產(chǎn)生多種單克隆抗體,監(jiān)測小鼠的存活率并進(jìn)行體外中和抗體測定,從而篩選出對小鼠保護(hù)作用最強(qiáng)的4E8單克隆抗體[30]。
已有用成年雌性BALB/c小鼠進(jìn)行EV71 VP1基因疫苗[37]和EV71滅活疫苗實(shí)驗(yàn)成功的報(bào)道[30]。最近發(fā)現(xiàn),用重組EV71 C4亞型的病毒樣微粒(virus-like particle,VLP)被動免疫成年母鼠,可激發(fā)免疫應(yīng)答并誘導(dǎo)產(chǎn)生中和抗體,使新生幼鼠免受EV71致死性感染[38]。將EV71 VP1蛋白在畢赤酵母表達(dá),獲得的重組VP1可有效誘導(dǎo) BALB/c 小鼠產(chǎn)生抗VP1抗體,將其產(chǎn)生的抗血清接種于新生小鼠能產(chǎn)生保護(hù)效能。該重組VP1具有較高的免疫原性并能使小鼠抗病毒能力增強(qiáng),是候選疫苗之一[39]。類似地,以長雙歧桿菌為載體也獲得重組VP1,通過口腔黏膜免疫6周齡雌性 BALB/c 小鼠,小鼠對EV71的免疫應(yīng)答明顯提高并產(chǎn)生抗體;在小鼠懷孕后繼續(xù)接種該疫苗,可降低新生小鼠的感染率[40]。這類經(jīng)口腔給藥的疫苗避免了注射帶來的痛苦,是一個(gè)新的接種途徑。
免疫缺陷小鼠,如AG129小鼠,是一種缺乏Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型干擾素受體的小鼠,對非小鼠適應(yīng)性EV71易感。有研究報(bào)道,將非小鼠適應(yīng)性EV71通過腹腔注射或口腔感染2周齡AG129小鼠,結(jié)果均出現(xiàn)致死性神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病,這可用于EV71感染發(fā)病機(jī)制研究及疫苗、藥物實(shí)驗(yàn)[41]。最近有人用A129小鼠(缺乏α和β 干擾素受體)和AG129小鼠(缺乏α、β和γ 干擾素受體)篩選小鼠敏感的EV71 B2亞型,結(jié)果AG129小鼠在出現(xiàn)四肢癱瘓、眼刺激、平衡喪失等神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀后死亡,而A129小鼠對這種EV71具有抗病能力,提示 γ干擾素受體似乎對EV71有一定抵抗力。給AG129小鼠注射不同稀釋濃度的滅活EV71疫苗,小鼠產(chǎn)生不同程度的抗感染保護(hù)作用并存活[28]。該實(shí)驗(yàn)雖獲得預(yù)期結(jié)果,但這類小鼠模型并不能較完善地模擬人類EV71感染的臨床表現(xiàn),因此結(jié)果不能直接用于人類。
已成功培育出PSGL-1轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠,可用于探討EV71受體PSGL-1是否在小鼠中起作用從而復(fù)制與人類相似的疾病,以及是否對EV71感染有促進(jìn)作用。結(jié)果表明,PSGL-1轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠感染EV71后,疾病的嚴(yán)重程度并沒有增加[42]。Yamayoshi等[43]通過實(shí)驗(yàn)鑒定了人SCARB2與EV71結(jié)合的功能區(qū)域,認(rèn)為SCARB2表面142~204位氨基酸(對應(yīng)的編碼區(qū)是外顯子4)可能是其與病毒結(jié)合的核心區(qū)域,曾設(shè)想將人SCARB2外顯子4替換入小鼠的相應(yīng)區(qū)域,建立一個(gè)新的小鼠易感模型。受此啟發(fā),最近有研究者將攜帶人SCARB2基因的質(zhì)粒導(dǎo)入C57BL/6小鼠胚胎,建立人SCARB2轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠。研究者對此類小鼠進(jìn)行一系列研究:給新生幼鼠皮下接種E59和N2838(均為EV71 B4亞型),小鼠出現(xiàn)皮疹病損,與人類幼兒所患手足口病的特征性皮疹一致,感染6 d后出現(xiàn)中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)樣疾?。欢挲g稍長的小鼠(2周齡以上)感染后疾病較輕并最終痊愈,這與人類手足口病隨年齡增長而下降一致。用低劑量5746(EV71 C2亞型)感染轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠,結(jié)果全部死亡;中劑量5746感染后,轉(zhuǎn)基因鼠較非轉(zhuǎn)基因鼠死亡更迅速。用N3340(EV71 C4亞型)感染新生小鼠,也導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)疾病并死亡,而對照組非轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠對N3340敏感性較低[44]。
為探索EV71的致病性及防治措施,國內(nèi)外學(xué)者進(jìn)行了大量研究。近年來有研究者認(rèn)為,EV71是通過與受體結(jié)合進(jìn)入細(xì)胞的,由于EV71型別不同,受體也有多種,目前發(fā)現(xiàn)的受體主要有SCARB2、PSGL-1、唾液酸聚糖、硫酸乙酰肝素黏多糖[25,32,45,46]。通過阻斷EV71通過受體入胞的通路,可降低感染。由于囊泡運(yùn)輸和成熟、信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)、肌動蛋白聚合等過程是EV71進(jìn)入細(xì)胞所必需的,所以可通過沉默囊泡和內(nèi)涵體轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)基因等方法降低EV71的感染力[47]。分子生物學(xué)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)EV71染色體編碼RNA依賴的RNA聚合酶,此種聚合酶是病毒復(fù)制的關(guān)鍵,也是研制抗病毒藥物的靶點(diǎn)之一[48]。
目前針對EV71的候選藥物有牛乳鐵傳遞蛋白[22]、Ⅰ型干擾素[49]、普拉康納利[19]、siRNA[26]等,疫苗種類主要有滅活疫苗[30]、重組EV71 VP1殼粒蛋白[39]、重組EV71 VLP[38]等。這些藥物和疫苗在體外細(xì)胞和動物實(shí)驗(yàn)中均顯示了良好效果。近年來EV71滅活疫苗已進(jìn)入臨床試驗(yàn)階段,受試者接種后中和抗體增高、T細(xì)胞反應(yīng)增強(qiáng),有顯著的免疫效應(yīng)[50]。然而應(yīng)用藥物和疫苗的對象將是廣大兒童,所以必須考慮藥物和疫苗的安全性及遠(yuǎn)期作用,因此在與EV71所致手足口病的斗爭中還有漫長的路要走。
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